ORGANIZATION     OF 

/5  /OBSTRUCTION    MATERIALS 
H4 


WITH    SPECIAL    RELATION    TO    THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 


UC-NRLF 


BY 


J.  W.  HECKERT 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  IN  THE  FACULTY 

OF  PHILOSOPHY,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


PUBLISHED   BY 

College,  Columbia 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1917 


EXCHANGE 


THE      ORGANIZATION      OF 
INSTRUCTION    MATERIALS 


WITH    SPECIAL    RELATION    TO    THE 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM 


BY 

J.   W.   HECKERT 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  IN  THE  FACULTY 

OF  PHILOSOPHY,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


PUBLISHED    BY 

College,  Columbia  Wimbnzitp 

NEW   YORK   CITY 

1917 


COPYRIGHT,      IQT7,      BY 
W.     J.     HECKERT 


PREFACE 

FOR  a  number  of  years  the  writer  has  been  engaged  in  training 
teachers  for  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  During  this  time 
he  has  had  excellent  opportunities  to  observe  the  struggle  of  begin- 
ning teachers  in  their  attempts  to  interpret  courses  of  study.  He 
has  frequently  had  occasion  to  listen  to  expressions  of  discourage- 
ment from  teachers  of  experience,  both  trained  and  untrained, 
who  were  attempting  to  follow  courses  of  study  that  failed  to  give 
a  clear  statement  of  the  subject  matter  to  be  taught  and  the  method 
of  teaching  it.  Often  he  has  found  such  teachers  to  have  recourse 
to  courses  of  study  of  other  systems  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
fundamental  plan  of  such  courses  might  not  be  in  harmony  with 
that  of  the  system  to  which  it  was  being  adapted.  The  present 
study  is  an  attempt  to  show  how  such  courses  of  study  may  be  made 
of  greater  service  to  teachers  in  their  task  of  making  instruction 
materials  meaningful,  of  bringing  about  organization  of  knowledge 
on  part  of  children. 

The  assumptions  in  the  discussion  of  this  problem  are  as  follows, 
(i)  The  course  of  study  of  a  school  system  is  a  plan  of  action  for 
the  teachers  of  the  system;  it  must  therefore  indicate  clearly  what 
is  to  be  taught  and  how  such  materials  are  to  be  made  real  experi- 
ences on  part  of  children.  (2)  The  object  of  teaching  must  be 
the  organization  of  experiences  by  children  with  a  view  of  making 
them  available  for  further  use  and,  for  this  reason,  helps  given 
teachers  on  "how  to  teach"  must  concern  themselves  largely  with 
the  problem  of  how  children's  experiences  are  to  become  organized. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Professor  Frank  M.  McMurry  for  help- 
ful suggestions  and  criticisms  in  making  the  study;  to  the  works 
of  Professors  Dewey  and  I.  E.  Miller  for  a  statement  of  the  psychol- 
ogy of  thinking;  to  Dr.  William  H.  Kilpatrick  for  suggesting  the 
final  arrangement  of  chapters;  to  the  critic  teachers  of  the  William 
McGuffey  School  of  Miami  University  for  supplying  some  of  the 
illustrations  of  children's  organizations  of  the  third  chapter  and  for 
trying  out  the  concrete  plans  of  the  fifth  chapter.  The  bibliog- 
raphy indicates  those  books  most  frequently  used  in  connection 
with  the  various  phases  of  the  discussion. 

J.  W.  H. 


CONTENTS 

V  •  PAGE 

I.    ORGANIZATION  OF  EXPERIENCE:  ITS  VALUE  AND  ITS  FACTORS     .      .  i 

1.  Why  Organization  of  Facts  is  Important         .....  i 

2.  How  the  Mind  Organizes  Its  Experiences        ......  3 

3.  Factors  in  Organization  More  Fully  Described     ....  5 

4.  Automatic  Organization    .       .      .      .      .      .      .     '  k      .       .  13 

5.  Conclusions      .       .      . .      .      .  15 

II.    ORGANIZATION  GENETICALLY  CONSIDERED     .......  16 

1.  The  Problem  in  Different  Stages  of  Development       ...  16 

2.  Choice  of  Materials  in  Different  Periods  of  Development       .  20 

3.  Arrangement  of  Facts  in  Different  Periods 24 

4.  Conclusions .      .      . ,     .   T  .      .  30 

III.  ORGANIZATION  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  CHILD  LIFE         .      .      .      .      .      .  32 

1.  How  Adults  Meet  Demand  for  Organization  Recalled      .       .  32 

2.  Extent  to  which  Children  Conform  to  Procedure  of  Adults    .  33 

3.  How  Children  Deal  with  Problems  in  School   .       ..  i  .       .       .  42 

4.  Conclusions 50 

IV.  PRESENT  PRACTICE  IN  CURRICULUM-MAKING 52 

i:  The  Importance  of  Organization  as  an  End  in  the  Teaching 

Process 52 

2.  Extent  to  which  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials  for 
Teaching  is  Regarded  as  a  Problem  in  Course  of  Study- 
Making  54 

3     How  should  Instruction  Materials  be  Organized    ....  63 

4.  How  Courses  of  Study  Should  Arrange  Instruction  Materials  80 

5.  The  Use  of  Present  Courses  of  Study  in  the  Process  of  Re- 

building.    Other  Suggestions    .       .       .      .      .  "  .      .      .  82 

V.   APPLICATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  STATED  TO  CURRICULUM-MAKING 

—  TYPE  ILLUSTRATIONS       , .      .      .  84 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 107 


ORGANIZATION   OF   INSTRUCTION 
MATERIALS 

CHAPTER   ONE 
ORGANIZATION:  ITS   VALUE  AND   ITS   FACTORS 

i.  WHY  ORGANIZATION  OF  FACTS  is  IMPORTANT 

WHY  do  we  attempt  to  organize  knowledge?  Venn  holds  that 
"the  object  of  all  classification  is  to  keep  our  control  over  the 
parts  by  marshalling  the  objects  in  order ;  to  know  where  to  find 
a  thing  when  it  is  wanted,  and  to  economize  our  statements  in  the 
retention  and  communication  of  our  knowledge." l  To  these 
ends  he  adds  another  which  he  designates  as  the  "ulterior  purpose " 
and  which  he  states  as  "the  aid  and  the  stimulus  to  fresh  study."  2 
This  latter  end  to  him  appears  the  most  important  of  all.  Bain 
agrees  when  he  holds  that  "a  science  has  a  certain  order  or  arrange- 
ment of  topics,  suitable  to  its  ends  in  gathering,  in  verifying,  and 
in  communicating  knowledge."  Mill  holds  that  "the  end  of  classi- 
fication, as  an  instrument  for  the  investigation  of  nature,  is  ...  to 
make  us  think  of  those  objects  together,  which  have  the  greatest 
number  of  important  common  properties;  and  which,  therefore, 
we  have  oftenest  occasion,  in  the  course  of  our  inductions,  for 
taking  into  joint  consideration."  Availability  of  facts,  therefore, 
either  for  practical  application,  the  solution  of  practical  problems, 
teaching,  or  for  the  extension  of  knowledge,  are  here  indicated 
as  the  chief  ends  of  organization.  In  these  statements  there  is 
another  end  implied  which  is  emphasized  by  Hobhouse  when  he 
says  "the  ideal  of  knowledge,  as  we  understand  it,  is  to  reduce 
the  mass  of  facts  with  which  it  deals  to  an  orderly  and  intelligible 
system."  In  this  system  every  element,  whether  particular  fact 
or  general  law,  would  be  explained  by  its  relation  to  the  system  as 
a  whole."  3  Creighton  expresses  the  same  idea  when  he  maintains 
that  in  a  system  "no  fact  is  allowed  to  stand  by  itself,  but  has  to 
take  its  place  as  a  member  of  a  larger  system  of  facts,  and  receive 
its  value  and  meaning  from  this  connection."  4  And  again,  when 

1  Emp.  Logic,  p.  323.  2  Ibid.,  p.  342. 

3  Theory  of  Knowledge,  pp.  473-474.          4  Introductory  Logic,  p.  340. 


' 

2  Orgdxizatioi)  oj  -Instruction  Materials 

he  says,  "The  better  we  are  able  to  put  together  in  a  systematic 
way  the  various  facts  which  we  have  learned  about  geology,  or 
astronomy,  or  the  weather,  the  more  significant  each  fact  becomes." 
The  geologist  may  be  able  to  tell  from  the  appearance  of  the  cliffs 
what  has  taken  place  in  a  locality  thousands  of  years  ago.  And, 
similarly,  for  the  fisherman,  the  temperature,  direction  of  the  wind, 
its  rising  or  its  falling,  etc.,  are  all  signs  from  which  he  is  able  to 
infer,  more  or  less  correctly,  the  kind  of  weather  which  may  be 
expected.5  Organization  is  here  considered  the  key  to  meaning 
and,  therefore,  the  basis  of  rational  behavior.  Facts  which  are 
unrelated  to  other  facts,  which  do  not  find  a  place  in  some  sys- 
tem, some  scheme,  remain  meaningless  and  do  not  affect  rational 
conduct. 

Authors  of  text-books  on  rhetoric  insist  upon  the  importance  of 
good  organization  of  thought  as  a  means  of  securing  clearness,  and 
much  space  is  devoted  to  showing  just  how  clearness  may  be  brought 
about  in  this  manner.  "Unity,"  "Coherence,"  and  "Emphasis"  are 
insisted  upon  with  this  idea  in  mind  in  connection  with  every  form 
of  discourse.  Books  and  discussions  noted  for  clearness,  simplic- 
ity, and  force  are  those  which  are  well  organized.  Drummond's 
"The  Greatest  Thing  in  the  World,"  Fiske's  "The  Critical  Period 
in  American  History"  (both  mentioned  by  McMurry  for  that  rea- 
son), Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation,  and  Spencer's  "Essays  on 
Education"  are  illustrations  of  good  organization. 

The  importance  of  organization  is  well  illustrated  in  industrial 
concerns,  such  as  large  manufacturing  establishments.  In  the 
manufacture  of  an  automobile,  for  example,  hundreds,  or  even 
thousands,  of  workmen  may  be  engaged.  Some  of  these  men 
make  the  various  parts,  each  producing  the  same  part  over  and 
over  again  during  his  working  hours.  Others  assemble  these  parts, 
some  the  several  units,  such  as  the  wheels,  the  rear  axle,  the  engine, 
etc.,  and  others  these  minor  units  into  the  complete  car.  Each  of 
these  men,  therefore,  plays  a  very  definite  part  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  car  and  incidentally  holds  a  very  definite  relation  to  all  the 
other  men  engaged  in  the  process.  In  establishments  in  which 
the  organization  is  perfect  there  is  no  waste  of  time  or  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  men;  the  product,  therefore,  can  be  efficiently  and 
economically  made. 

The  above  illustration  will  serve  not  only  to  indicate  the  impor- 
tance of  organization  in  the  industries,  but  it  will  also  show  the 
6  Op.  cit.,pp.  383-384. 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  3 

significance  of  organization  of  knowledge  for  behavior  or  conduct. 
Before  the  men  employed  in  an  industrial  establishment  can  work 
efficiently  a  method  of  procedure  —  an  organization  of  the  factory 

—  must  have  been  thought  out,  or  planned,  by  somebody.     The 
efficient  organization  of  the  factory,  therefore,  is  merely  the  coun- 
terpart of  efficient  planning  or  organization  of  ideas. 

It  matters  little,  therefore,  what  fields  of  knowledge  or  of  con- 
duct are  under  consideration,  whether  we  take  the  sciences  dealing 
more  especially  with  classifications,  or  those  which  attempt  the 
development  of  principles  or  laws;  or  whether  we  turn  from  these 
fields  of  theoretical  endeavor  to  the  world  of  practical  affairs, 

—  organization  is  always  conducive  to  clearness,  to  easy  control 
over  facts,  making  possible  their  application  to  the  solution  of 
practical  problems,  or  to  the  extension  of  knowledge,  and,  ulti- 
mately, to  rational  and  efficient  conduct. 

2.   How  THE  MIND  ORGANIZES  ITS  EXPERIENCES 

How  does  the  mind  organize  its  experiences?  Organization 
of  knowledge  is  the  product  of  thought  or  reflection.  "It  is  by 
judging  or  thinking,"  says  Creighton,6  "that  we  attempt  to  bring 
the  various  parts  of  our  experiences  into  relation  with  one  another." 
"Judgment  combines  the  new  facts  with  which  it  deals,  with  what 
is  already  known,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  to  each  its  proper  place 
in  relation  to,  and  interdependence  with,  the  others.  Different 
facts  are  not  only  brought  together,  but  they  are  arranged,  related, 
systematized."  7  It  is  evident  therefore  that  whenever  organiza- 
tion of  facts  is  a  desideratum  thought  or  reflection  is  the  essential 
condition.  The  problem  of  the  organization  of  knowledge  thus 
becomes  the  problem  of  the  psychology  of  thinking,  the  problem 
of  "how  do  we  make  facts  meaningful"  becomes  the  problem  of 
"how  do  we  think."  Professor  Dewey  gives  the  following  analy- 
sis of  a  complete  act  of  thought.  There  is,  first,  a  felt  difficulty; 
second,  there  is  an  attempt  to  locate  and  define  the  difficulty; 
third,  there  follow  suggestions  of  possible  solutions;  fourth,  the 
development  by  reasoning  of  the  bearings  of  the  suggestion;  fifth, 
further  observation  and  experiment  leading  to  its  acceptance  or 
rejection;  that  is,  the  conclusion  of  belief  or  disbelief.  The  first 
of  these  steps  conditions  the  other  four;  unless  there  is  a  felt  diffi- 
culty there  will  be  no  thinking.  The  second  step  has  for  its  object 
6  p.  342.  7  p.  340. 


4  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

making  the  difficulty  as  clear  as  possible,  to  determine  "just  what 
is  the  trouble,  or  to  make  clear  the  specific  character  of  the  prob- 
lem." The  third  step,  the  advancement  of  a  hypothesis,  controls 
the  selection  of  facts  essential  to  the  solution  of  the  problem.  The 
fourth  step  has  for  its  object  establishing  the  implications  of  a 
given  suggestion  or  hypothesis,  selecting  and  arranging  facts  thought 
to  have  a  bearing  upon  the  case  with  a  view  of  establishing  a  solu- 
tion. The  final  step  concerns  itself  with  the  verification  of  the 
tentative  solution  by  the  introduction  of  further  facts,  or  the  appli- 
cation of  the  tentative  conclusion  to  other  situations  definitely 
planned  for  the  purpose,  leading  finally  to  the  complete  establish- 
ment of  the  tentative  conclusion  or  to  its  rejection  as  unsatisfactory. 
From  this  analysis  it  will  be  evident  that  organization  of  thought 
results  in  response  to  a  problem,  and  that  it  consists  in  the  selec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  facts  with  the  guidance  of  a  hypothesis 
proposing  a  tentative  solution. 

An  outline  of  Wilson's  essay,  "The  Truth  of  the  Matter,"  as 
given  in  Professor  Genung's  "  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric," 
will  serve  to  illustrate  this  theory. 

"Introduction:  The  ideal  of  writing  history  is  to  make  a  narrative  that  out  of 
the  profusion  of  actual  facts  so  selects  the  few  it  can  handle  as  to  convey  an  im- 
pression of  the  whole  truth  and  of  every  order  of  truth. 

I.  The  defect  of  the  present-day  "dispassionate"  ideal. 

1.  While  it  gives  facts,  it  does  not  adequately  impress  the  truth. 

2.  And  this  because  it  lacks  the  art  necessary  to  this  latter  object. 

II.  The  historian's  art  and  its  end  analyzed. 

1.  From  Macaulay's  art,  masterly  but  lacking,  we  learn  that,  while 

our  narrative  must  contain  in  solution  a  judgment  of  things,  that 
judgment  must  not  be  imposed  from  without  as  an  advocate's  plea 
but  evolved  from  within  as  a  discovered  impression. 

2.  From  Carlyle's  and  Gibbon's  lack,  respectively,  we  learn  that,  while 

the  impression  must  be  unitary,  it  must  be  neither  too  lurid  and 
passionate  nor  too  pale  and  remote. 

3.  From  Green's  lack  we  learn  that,  while  scholarship  and  artistry  may 

be  in  masterly  combination,  the  result  will  fail  unless  the  plan  and 
variety  of  the  telling  answer  to  the  plan  and  variety  of  the  fact. 

III.  The  supreme  requirements  that  this  analysis  suggests. 

1.  That  impressions  be  conveyed  in  the  fresh  and  living  spirit  of  impres- 

sion and  not  in  the  severe  spirit  of  scholarly  accumulation. 

2.  That  the  color  and  proportion  of  such  impressions  be  conceived  as 

they  must  have  come  to  the  actors  in  the  midst  of  the  events. 

Conclusion:  This  art  of  telling  the  truth  requires  imagination  as  well  as  scholar- 
ship, literary  art  as  well  as  candor  and  honesty." 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  5 

The  following  facts  stand  out  in  this  outline:  First,  the  incentive 
to  reflection  or  thought  which  led  to  the  resulting  organization,  or 
reorganization  of  facts,  was  a  difficulty,  an  unexplained  situation, 
containing  some  elements  or  factors  whose  relationship  was  not 
clear.  Mr.  Wilson  asks,  "How  should  history  be  written  in  order 
to  convey  the  whole  truth?  "  because  there  is  a  wide  divergence  of 
views  on  this  point  as  shown  by  the  actual  practice  of  historians. 
Second,  such  facts  are  selected  as  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the 
difficulty  or  problem,  and  will  therefore  make  possible  its  solution. 
Finally,  the  facts  found  to  have  a  bearing  upon  the  problem  are 
arrranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  solution  proposed  clear, 
forceful  and  sound. 


3.  THE  FACTORS  IN  ORGANIZATION  MORE  FULLY  DESCRIBED 

(a)  The  Problem.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  problem  which  in- 
duces organization?  The  presence  of  a  problem  is  not  an  indica- 
tion, however,  that  it  will  function  effectively  in  the  organization 
of  experiences.  Problems  which  seem  of  the  greatest  significance 
to  one  individual,  or  class,  are  ignored  by  others.  The  problem 
of  the  theologian  quite  generally  fails  to  be  appreciated  by  the 
scientist;  that  of  the  scientist  by  the  merchant;  while  those  of  the 
merchant  remain  a  matter  of  indifference  to  other  classes.  Children 
often  show  a  marked  indifference  toward  the  problem  of  the  text- 
book, and,  at  times,  toward  those  of  the  adults  in  their  environ- 
ments. The  problem  which  is  to  induce  mental  activity  leading  to 
organization  of  experiences  must  appear  vital  to  the  individual; 
unless  he  feels  its  importance  and  appreciates  in  some  degree  that 
something  is  to  be  gained  through  its  solution,  something  worth 
while  is  to  be  known,  no  effort  will  be  put  forth. 

How  will  such  a  problem  arise?  The  fact  that  an  individual 
feels  the  significance  of  a  vital  problem,  feels  its  worth  to  himself, 
is  an  indication  that  it  is  closely  related  to  his  experience.  His 
experience  is  inadequate  for  instant  recognition  of  relationships,  or 
immediate  solution  o'f  the  problem,  but  is  nevertheless  the  essen- 
tial factor  giving  rise  to  it.  Mr.  Wilson's  problem,  "How  should 
history  be  written  so  as  to  convey  the  whole  truth?"  is  the  out- 
growth of  his  experience  as  a  student,  teacher,  and  writer  of  history. 
Mr.  Darwin,  in  his  "Origin  of  the  Species,"  before  plunging  into  the 
discussion  of  the  subject,  gives  us  an  account  of  the  state  of  knowl- 
edge on  this  topic  up  to  the  time  of  his  writing.  These  few  pages 


6  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

show  that  because  of  his  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  field 
has  it  become  possible  for  him  to  see  the  significance  of  the  problem 
which  he  then  takes  up  for  solution.  Problems  to  be  vital  to  an 
individual  must  therefore  be  closely  related  to  his  experience,  must, 
in  fact,  be  an  outgrowth  of  this  experience.8 

But  while  experience,  by  making  apparent  the  contradictory 
nature  of  facts  and  judgments,  makes  it  possible  for  problems  to 
arise,  it  must  not  be  assumed  that  mere  contradictoriness  of  judg- 
ments in  itself  makes  a  problem  vital.  Mr.  Wilson  takes  up  the 
solution  of  his  problem  not  merely  because  he  finds  that  historians 
differ  in  their  method  of  treating  historical  data  but  because  he 
feels  that  it  is  a  point  of  great  importance  in  the  writing  of  history 
to  represent  each  period  truthfully,  and  that  the  method  of  the 
historian  has  a  very  close  relation  to  this  end.  A  problem  will  be 
appreciated  as  vital  only  when  it  is  recognized  as  having  direct  rela- 
tion to  the  attainment  of  some  end  which,  if  realized,  will  mean 
the  satisfaction  of  a  need.  "Experience,"  it  has  been  pointed  out, 
"may  lead  one  to  see  a  value  in  work  that  to  the  inexperienced 
would  seem  mere  useless  drudgery.  But  the  experience  merely 
makes  clear  the  connection  between  the  work  and  the  need.  It 
cannot  create  the  need.  The  energy  in  a  motive  comes  from  within. 
.  .  .  Experience  merely  enables  this  energy  to  acquire  clearness 
and  direction,  and  thus  to  become  a  conscious  motive."  9  While 
experience  does  not  create  needs  it  does  so  modify  the  fundamental 
native  needs  that  they  express  themselves  in  very  different  ways  in 
different  individuals.  As  Professor  Thorndike  says,  "Each  indi- 
vidual acquires  interests  in  a  special  circle  of  friends,  special  divi- 
sions of  knowledge,  a  special  profession  or  trade,  a  special  locality, 
and  so  with  many  objects  of  modern  life."  Experience  may  there- 
fore be  said  to  play  the  double  role  of  making  the  individual  cog- 
nizant of  the  value  of  work  in  the  satisfaction  of  a  need  and  of 
modifying  somewhat  fundamental  native  needs.  Needs  thus  modi- 
fied have  been  called  acquired  needs.10  Problems  to  be  vital, 
therefore,  must  have  a  very  intimate  relation  to  the  individual's 
needs  as  well  as  to  his  experience. 

(b)  How  will  the  Facts  for  the  Solution  of  the  Problem  be  Chosen  ? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  facts  which  will  be  chosen  for  the  pur- 
pose of  arriving  at  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem?  It  has 

8  6ewey,  Studies  in  Logical  Theory,  pp.  37-40. 

9  Monroe,  Encyclopedia  of  Education,  Art.  "Apperception." 
10  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  p.  83. 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  7 

been  shown  that  the  condition  which  impels  an  individual  to  or- 
ganize his  experience  is  a  problem  which  has  a  vital  significance  to 
him.  The  problem,  as  was  pointed  out,  always  implies  a  difficulty, 
a  "gap"  in  the  individual's  experience,  which  must  be  bridged 
over  through  reflection,  or  thought.  Through  thought  such  mediat- 
ing facts  are  selected  as  will  establish  a  close  connection  between 
these  formerly  unrelated  elements  in  the  situation  and  lead  to  a 
conclusion  based  upon,  and  closely  dependent  upon,  the  facts  so 
related.  Now,  if,  as  was  just  intimated,  the  facts  selected  are  to 
be  used  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  chain  of  reasoning  in  a 
problematic  situation,  the  implication  would  be  that  they  must 
be  definitely  related  to  the  problem  to  be  solved  and  that  the  facts 
not  so  related  must  be  rigorously  excluded. 

The  problem  in  each  case  will  determine  just  what  facts  will  be 
essential  for  the  purpose  of  solving  it.  Problems  differing  in  any 
degree  will  require  a  somewhat  different  content  for  solution.  The 
writer  on  zoology  who  aims  to  give  the  reader  a  systematic  knowl- 
edge of  the  structure  of  the  various  organisms  composing  the  animal 
kingdom  selects  a  body  of  facts  somewhat  different  from  those  of 
the  writer  who  is  especially  interested  in  informing  his  readers 
concerning  the  methods  to  be  employed  for  the  effective  control  of 
certain  forms  of  animal  life.  Certain  facts,  such  as  the  relationship 
of  a  given  order  or  class  to  other  orders  and  classes,  are  of  great 
significance  in  the  one  case  but  mean  very  little  in  the  other.  Thus 
the  gill  slits,  the  notochord,  the  dorsal  nerve  chord,  and  the  eye 
developing  from  the  brain,  found  in  the  larval  Ascidian,  are  of  great 
significance  to  the  zoologist  for  establishing  the  true  relationship 
of  this  class  of  organisms  in  the  animal. kingdom;  but  all  the  facts 
which  might  be  stated  about  this  class  of  animals  would  possess 
little  if  any  value  to  the  man  of  business.  The  fact  that  the  early 
stages  in  the  development  of  the  fish,  reptiles,  chicken,  and  rabbit 
are  quite  similar  may  be  of  significance  to  the  biologist  for  his 
purposes,  but  has  no  relation  to  the  problems  of  the  author  of  a 
cookbook  or  the  manager  of  a  meatshop.  The  several  phases  of 
psychology  illustrate  this  point.  The  specific  problem  of  physio- 
logical psychology  is  to  account  for  the  physical  basis  of  mental 
life;  its  data  are  selected  with  this  end  in  mind.  Educational  psy- 
chology attempts  to  show  the  relation  of  certain  phases  of  general 
psychology  to  problems  of  education;  its  problem  is  "What  can 
psychology  offer  for  the  solution  of  specific  educational  problems?  " 
Child  psychology  deals  with  another  group  of  problems  and  so 


8  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

does  the  psychology  of  adolescence,  each  selecting  the  facts  essen- 
tial for  that  purpose.  And  so  with  other  phases  of  psychology. 
Similar  illustrations  might  be  given  in  almost  any  other  field. 
Thus  we  have  political  history,  economic  history,  educational  his- 
tory of  the  United  States ;  mathematical  geography,  physical  geog- 
raphy, political  geography,  commercial  and  economic  geography, 
etc.,  each  having  its  specific  problem  and  selecting  the  facts  essen- 
tial for  its  solution  and  ignoring  others  not  so  related.  Only  those 
facts,  therefore,  which  have  a  definite  relation  to  the  problem  and 
are  needed  for  its  solution  will  have  any  value  in  that  connection. 

Not  only  must  the  data  used  in  the  solution  of  a  problem  be 
relevant,  however;  they  must  be  of  a  quality  to  make  possible  the 
ready  recognition  of  those  relationships  which  it  is  the  purpose  of 
thought  to  establish.  The  normal  thing  to  do  when  confronted 
with  a  new  situation  is  to  interpret  it  in  the  light  of  previous,  similar 
situations.  "Whenever  a  new  way  of  acting  is  to  be  organized," 
says  Charters,  "  (the  solving  of  the  problem)  experience  falls  back 
upon  old  ways  with  which  it  is  familar  and  therefore  knows  how 
to  handle.  .  .  .  From  all  this  past  experience,  that  which  can  be 
adapted  in  reorganization  for  the  new  purpose  is  used."  n  In 
accordance  with  this  law  the  individual  in  his  attempt  to  work  out 
the  solution  of  a  problem  first  appeals  to  his  -own  experience  in 
search  of  facts,  principles,  or  laws,  which  might  possibly  enable 
him  to  solve  the  difficulty.  These  facts  or  principles  he  attempts 
to  evaluate  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  relationship  to  the  new 
problem.  Knowing  them  in  other  connections  he  appreciates  more 
readily  those  phases  which  make  them  significant  in  the  new 
situation.  >•  , 

Often,  however,  the  experience  of  the  individual  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  demands  made  upon  it;  the  facts  needed  must  be  obtained 
in  some  way  from  outside  sources.  What  facts  will  an  individual 
choose  under  such  conditions?  There  may  be  multitudes  of  facts 
which  will  suggest  the  answer,  upon  which  the  conclusion  may  be 
based,  and  any  of  these  might  therefore  be  selected  as  a, basis  for 
it.  But  a  limited  number  only  will  be  chosen,  the  choice  being  again 
effected  in  accordance  with  the  Law  of  Apperception;  those,  namely, 
which  have  a  meaning  for  the  present  purpose,  whose  relationship 
to  the  problem  is  most  readily  detected.  Experience  functions  in 
this  respect  as  it  does  in  the  location  and  definition  of  the  problem; 
here  it  determines  what  facts  shall  be  selected,  limiting  the  choice 
11  Charters,  Methods  of  Teaching,  p.  155. 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  9 

to  those  which  are  related  to  the  individual's  experience  and  to  the 
problem,  and  which  for  that  reason  have  the  greatest  significance 
to  him;  all  others  will  be  ignored.12 

Relevancy  of  facts  to  the  problem  and  a  quality  to  make  this 
relevancy  most  apparent  and  thinking  most  effective  are  the  char- 
acteristics of   facts  usable  for  problem   solution   and  the  resulting 
organization  of  materials.     There  remains  for  discussion  the  number 
of  facts  essential  for  the  satisfactory  solution  of  a  problem.     In 
the  solution  of   any  problem   the  task,  as  previously  indicated,  is 
that  of  finding  suitable  mediating  facts  and  of  arranging  them  in 
an  order  appropriate  for  establishing  the  solution.     How  will  the 
number  of  facts  to  be  used  in  any  unit  of   organization  be  deter- 
mined?    Both  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  problem  and  the  stage 
of  development  of  the  individual  engaged  in  its  solution  are  deter- 
mining factors.     Every  unit  of  organization  may  be  considered  a 
system  and  as  such  must  have  the  necessary  number  of  elements 
to  make  it  complete.     The  system  constructed  by  Darwin  in  his 
"Origin  of  the  Species"  is  very  comprehensive  and  requires  a  wealth 
of  data  to  establish  it  because  of  the  magnitude  of  the  problem. 
The  very  comprehensiveness  of  the  problem  suggests  numerous 
minor  problems  each  one  of  which  must  be  considered  in  detail 
and  disposed  of  in  the  same  careful  manner  as  the  main  problem 
in  order  to  construct  the  system,  a  sound  argument  in  support  of 
the  contention.     Since  Darwin's   object  is  not  merely  to  satisfy 
himself  with  reference  to  the  problem  he  suggests,  but  to  compel 
acceptance  of  his  conclusion  and  belief  in  the  soundness  of  his 
reasoning,  he  must  use  extra  care  to  leave  not  even  a  small  "  gap"  in 
the  chain  of  reasoning,  and,  for  this  reason,  supply  sufficient  data 
to  bring  this  about.     Whether  the  problem  be  large  or  small  the 
materials  introduced  must  always  be  sufficient  in  quantity  to  con- 
stitute a  complete  solution.13    The  relation  of  the  number  of  data 
needed  for  the  solution  of  a  problem  to  the  development  of  the 
individual  engaged  upon  it  will  be  discussed  in  the  second  chapter. 
Facts  then  to  be  valuable  in  the  solution  of  a  problem  must  be  rele- 
vant and  must  be  of  a  quality  to  make  ready  recognition  of  this 
relevancy  possible.     The  number  to  be  used  in  the  solution  of  a 
problem  will  depend  upon   the  comprehensiveness  of   the  latter 
and  the  maturity  of  the  individual. 

12  Dewey,  How  We  Think,  p.  199. 

13  But  facts  must  not  be  so  numerous  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  individual 
to  manage  them. 


io  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

(c)  The  Arrangement  of  Facts  to  Indicate  the  Solution  of  a  Problem. 
The  facts  essential  to  the  solution  of  any  problem  having  been 
chosen,  they  must  be  arranged  in  such  an  order  as  to  indicate  the 
solution.  How  does  the  mind  proceed  in  the  arrangement  of  facts 
to  indicate  the  conclusion  sought,  the  relationship  to  be  established? 
For  this  purpose  it  will  be  well  to  recall  certain  phases  of  the  psy- 
chology of  thinking.  Once  the  problem  which  gives  rise  to  organi- 
zation has  been  clearly  denned,  enough  elements  in  the  situation 
may  be  known  to  make  possible  the  statement  of  one  or  more  hy- 
potheses. Each  hypothesis  must  then  be  tested  out  by  (i)  the  se- 
lection of  certain  facts  which  will  be  relevant  to  the  plan  suggested 
by  it,  and  (2)  the  arrangement  of  these  facts  in  such  a  way  as  to 
indicate  clearly  the  relation  to  be  established  and  tentatively  pro- 
posed in  the  hypothesis.  An  illustration  will  make  this  clear. 

In  attempting  to  account  for  New  York's  greatness  as  a  trade 
center  one  might  suggest  as  the  possible  causes  the  cosmopolitan 
character  of  its  population,  the  intelligence  and  farsightedness 
of  its  commercial  leaders  of  an  earlier  day,  its  favorable  location, 
etc.  Noting  first  the  character  of  its  population  we  find  that  the 
composition  of  the  population  of  other  large  cities  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  New  York.  The  same  advantages, 
or  disadvantages,  attaching  to  this  factor  would  be  shared  by  all. 
This  suggestion  will  therefore  be  discarded  as  unsatisfactory. 
Considering  next  the  character  of  its  commercial  leaders  it  may  be 
found  that  while  New  York  has  always  had  some  great  financiers, 
the  same  is  true  of  the  other  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  And  while 
undoubtedly  there  were  farsighted  business  men  who  suggested 
the  building  of  the  canal  and  railroads,  wharves,  etc.,  such  sugges- 
tions were  valuable  only  because  the  presence  of  certain  physical 
features ,  such  as  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers,  the  East  River, 
New  York  Bay,  etc.,  made  them  possible.  The  second  suggestion, 
too,  must  therefore  be  dropped  as  inadequate.  To  test  the  ade- 
quacy of  the  third  we  may  ask  ourselves  what  advantages  New 
York's  location  offers  over  those  of  the  other  large  Atlantic  cities. 
Here  we  should  find  that  the  city  has  a  splendid  harbor,  direct 
water  routes  to  Europe  and  South  America,  and  that  it  has  —  and 
always  has  had  —  a  more  favorable  connection  with  the  hinterland 
than  the  other  cities.  To  determine  the  significance  of  these  factors 
for  the  problem  in  hand  we  ask  what  advantages  arise  from  them. 
We  should  thus  establish  the  facts  that  favorable  connection  with 
the  interior  of  the  country  has  meant  in  the  past  more  favorable 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  n 

connection  with  the  country's  raw  products  and  readier  access  to 
its  markets;  that  water  connections  equally  good  as  those  of  other 
cities  means  access  to  the  raw  materials  and  markets  of  other 
countries;  that  a  superior  harbor  means  that  ships  will  come  to 
New  York  rather  than  go  elsewhere,  especially  since  in  case  of  New 
York  there  is  the  added  advantage  of  better  connections  with  the 
interior  of  the  continent.  As  a  result  of  such  testing  of  hypotheses, 
or  reasoning,  a  number  of  minor  connections  will  have  been  estab- 
lished, or  recalled,  for  each  of  these  above  statements  is  a  state- 
ment of  a  relation  valuable  in  laying  the  foundation  for  the  final 
relationship  to  be  established,  that  between  New  York's  location 
and  its  importance  as  a  trade  center.  Relations  to  be  established, 
therefore,  are  foreshadowed  by  the  hypothesis,  but  come  to  be 
definitely  established  only  after  the  selection  of  relevant  facts  and 
the  development,  through  reasoning,  of  such  connections  between 
these  facts  as  are  valuable  in  determining  the  conclusion,  the  final 
connection  sought. 

The  route  which  the  mind  takes  in  organizing  its  experiences, 
it  will  be  seen  from  this  account,  is  a  circuitous  one.  Numerous 
suggestions  appear,  all  of  them  seemingly  satisfactory.  But  a 
number  of  them  may  lead  into  blind  alleys  and  must  be  discarded 
before  a  satisfactory  one  will  be  found. 

The  organization  resulting  in  any  instance  will,  of  course,  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  problem  inducing  it.  Thus  the  business 
man  who  is  considering  how  to  vote  on  the  tariff  question  will 
come  to  see  the  relation  of  the  tariff  to  his  business.  Consciously, 
or  unconsciously,  his  problem  becomes,  "How  will  the  tariff  affect 
my  business?"  and,  as  a  result,  the  data  chosen  in  deciding  that 
matter  will  have  a  close  relation  to  this  problem,  and  their  arrange- 
ment will  be  such  as  to  show  the  relation  of  the  tariff  to  his  business. 
Quite  different  may  be  the  organization  of  facts  by  the  economist 
considering  the  relation  of  the  tariff  to  the  life  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole.  Not  only  is  there  likely  to  be  a  much  larger  number  of 
data  included  in  this  case,  data,  too,  of  a  far  wider  range,  but  they 
are  likely  to  be  so  arranged  as  to  lead  to  a  somewhat  different 
organization  and  conclusion.  Thus  while  the  business  man  may 
have  decided  that  for  his  own  interest  he  must  vote  for  high  pro- 
tective tariff  the  economist  may  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  while  a  high  protective  tariff  is  of  benefit  to  some  interests,  the 
people  of  the  country  in  general  do  not  profit  from  it  and  ultimately 
they  must  pay  the  increased  prices  due  to  it.  The  nature  of  the 


12  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

organization 14  resulting,  therefore,  will  be  determined  by  the 
problem  giving  rise  to  it. 

While  the  interest  of  both  the  business  man  and  the  economist 
may  lie  chiefly  in  the  conclusion  resulting  in  each  case,  it  does  not 
lie  wholly  there.  As  rational  beings  we  wish  to  justify  our  con- 
duct, or  the  ideas  on  which  our  conduct  is  based,  and  for  that 
reason  we  try  to  make  sure  that  we  shall  not  only  have  in  our 
possession  the  final  conclusions  but  the  grounds  upon  which  they 
are  based.  These  grounds,  however,  are  merely  the  facts  which 
were  selected  because  of  their  relevancy  to  the  problem  and  so 
arranged  as  to  make  the  conclusion  arrived  at  appear  sound  or 
rational.  Thus  the  business  man  will  have  facts  similar  to  the 
following  as  grounds  for  his  conclusions  and  recall  them  as  occasion 
demands.  "The  X  party  has  a  protective  tariff  plank  in  its  plat- 
form. A  protective  tariff  policy  will  lead  this  party,  if  placed  in 
power,  to  put  a  tariff  upon  tools  and  machinery.  Since  I  am  in- 
terested in  the  manufacture  of  these  things  I  shall  profit  from  such 
a  tariff."  The  economist  might  resort  to  the  use  of  the  following 
facts,  or  assumptions,  as  the  grounds  of  his  conclusion:  "A  protec- 
tive tariff  induces  the  establishment  of  a  particular  industry  but  does 
not  add  to  the  total  industry  of  the  country.  It  has  a  tendency 
to  establish  less  productive  industries  in  place  of  more  productive 
ones;  only  when  the  duty  is  removed  as  soon  as  the  industry  be- 
comes self-sustaining  is  economic  waste  avoided.  A  protective 
tariff  may  fail  to  establish  self-sustaining  industries  and  thus  cause 
a  permanent  economic  waste.  The  consumer  must  finally  pay 
the  tariff,  not  the  importer.  One  protective  duty  may  neutralize  the 
advantages  that  domestic  producers  gain  from  others.  The  protec- 
tive tariff  does  not  increase  the  wealth  of  a  country,  does  not  increase 
permanently  the  net  amount  of  money  received  from  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  cannot  increase  the  general  rate  of  wages  in  a  country."  15 

Whether  such  an  arrangement  of  facts  or  data  in  any  case  will 
be  called  inductive  or  deductive  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  facts  available  for  the  solution  of  the  problem.  In  the  induc- 
tive arrangement  specific  instances  must  be  selected  in  sufficient 
number  to  justify  the  generalization  based  upon  them.  When 
thinking  of  the  basis  of  the  generalization,  therefore,  we  may  recall 
the  process  by  which  we  developed  it  rather  completely,  or  merely 
in  part.  In  the  former  instance  we  should  probably  think  of  the 
problem,  the  hypothesis  suggested  and  accepted  in  its  solution,  the 

14  Conclusion  and  supporting  data.  16  Bullock,  Study  of  Economics. 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  13 

specific  instances  selected  and  arranged  in  support  of  the  hypothe- 
sis, and  the  conclusion  of  a  general  nature.  More  commonly, 
however,  we  think  merely  of  the  specific  instances  upon  which  the 
conclusion  is  based.  In  the  deductive  arrangement,  however, 
the  generalization  to  be  used  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  has 
been  previously  established  and  may  be  used  as  a  fact  in  its  explana- 
tion. When  attempting  to  recall  the  grounds  of  a  conclusion  de- 
rived by  the  deductive  method,  therefore,  we  think  of  the  prin- 
ciple covering  the  case.  A  recall  of  the  complete  process  of  arriv- 
ing at  the  conclusion  in  this  case  would  include  the  problem,  the 
explaining  principle,  the  application  of  the  principle  to  the  case 
in  hand,  and  the  conclusion. 

4.  Is  ALL  ORGANIZATION  THE  PRODUCT  OF  THOUGHT? 

Up  to  the  present  we  have  maintained  that  organization  of  knowl- 
edge is  the  product  of  thought.  The  question  now  to  be  raised  very 
briefly  is:  Is  organization  of  experience  invariably  the  product  of 
thought,  or  does  it  sometimes  result  without  its  intervention? 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  all  thinking,  whether  day-dream- 
ing or  problem-solving  involves,  (i)  a  succession  of  ideational  ele- 
ments and  (2)  a  purpose  either  definitely  recognized  or  vaguely 
felt.  Rowe  l6  calls  organization  resulting  from  activity  during  which 
the  individual  is  not  conscious  of  any  purpose  "automatic."  He 
points  out  that  there  are  two  ways  in  which  experience  comes  to  be 
organized  automatically.  These  are  "(i)  a  wide  range  ...  of 
instinctive  ways  with  which  man  is  natively  equipped,  and  (2)  a 
large  class  of  modified,  combined,  or  selected  ways  which  gradually 
develop  according  as  satisfaction  has  been  gained  through  their 
chance  employment.  All  imitative  tendencies,  play  tendencies, 
constructive,  experimenting,  and  expressive  tendencies,  not  to 
mention  the  assignment  of  meaning  to  various  sense  stimuli,  and 
thousands  of  definite  impulses  to  function  with  involved  muscle 
combinations,  such  as  the  tendencies  to  make  the  eyes  focus  to- 
gether, or  hold  the  body  erect  in  a  sitting  posture,  all  of  these  are 
automatic  tendencies  of  a  natural  or  instinctive  order."  All  have 
a  part  in  the  automatic  organization  of  experience.  Under  the 
second  class,  the  "  acquired  automatic  ways  of  organizing  experience," 
he  suggests  as  the  most  important  classes  "interpretations  of  and 
adaptations  to  complex  sense  experience,  the  use  of  the  imagina- 
16  Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching. 


14  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

tion  in  suggesting  new  truths  or  new  ways  of  doing  things,  the 
acceptance  of  truth  or  error  on  authority,  the  use  of  reason  in  crit- 
icising and  reenforcing  suggestions  of  the  imagination,  and  various 
subtle  feeling  and  will  attitudes  of  mind  favorable  in  the  main  to 
bringing  experiences  into  such  combinations  as  to  make  them  of 
increased  service."  The  child's  attempts  to  use  his  imagination  in 
a  playful  manner,  his  humorous  questions,  who  made  God,  what 
keeps  the  moon  from  falling,  where  the  rain  comes  from,  his  naive 
attempts  at  explanations,  are  given  as  more  concrete  illustrations 
of  this  mode  of  organization  of  experience.  Such  organization  of 
experience  then  is  the  result  of  native  or  acquired  automatic  ten- 
dencies and  not  the  product  of  thought. 

As  a  result  of  this  tendency  to  organize  automatically,  the  indi- 
vidual acquires  a  considerable  number  of  specific  ways  of  respond- 
ing to  certain  stimuli,  of  reacting  to  certain  situations,  and  a  mass 
of  information.  Each  of  these  responses,  however,  is  an  organi- 
zation —  a  connection  of  stimulus  and  response  —  which  has  been 
established  without  regard  to  any  other.  Through  experiment  the 
child  has  found  out  that  drinking  the  milk  from  his  dish  of  break- 
fast food  is  a  more  effective  mode  than  eating  it  with  the  spoon; 
that  eating  certain  kinds  of  pie  with  his  spoon  is  a  more  successful 
way  than  using  the  fork  for  the  purpose.  In  each  case,  however, 
his  mother  informs  him  that  his  method  of  eating  is  not  the  method 
of  polite  society.  He  accepts  the  statement  of  the  minister  that 
God  took  his  little  playmate  to  heaven  because  he  loved  him  so 
greatly;  and  he  believes  his  mother  when  she  says  that  flies  must 
be  kept  out  of  the  house  in  order  to  avoid  typhoid  fever  from  which 
his  playmate  died.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  educated  man  such 
organization  is  chaotic.  We  have  here  not  one  or  more  systems 
of  facts,  or  experience,  into  which  the  various  responses,  or  ideas 
giving  rise  to  them,  fit,  but  instead  a  mass  of  uncorrelated  experi- 
ence often  contradictory  in  the  extreme. 

This  body  of  experience  thus  acquired,  uncorrelated  and  contra- 
dictory in  nature,  serves  to  point  out  the  significance  of  conscious 
organization.  Such  experience  is  a  fertile  field  for  problems  to 
be  solved  only  through  reflection.  Through  conscious  organiza- 
tion experiences  become  correlated,  rationalized,  organized  into 
systems.  Incidentally  some  modes  of  behavior  will  become  modi- 
fied, some  opinions  will  be  dropped,  some  facts  harmonized. 

In  the  present  discussion  conscious  organization  only  will  be 
considered. 


Organization:   Its  Value  and  Its  Factors  15 

5.   CONCLUSIONS 

Conscious  organization  has  for  its  object  the  rationalizing  of 
experience,  rendering  it  more  available  for  the  investigation  of 
specific  problems,  for  the  extension  of  knowledge,  for  communica- 
tion to  others,  and  for  the  control  of  conduct  in  general.  It  is 
conditioned  by  the  presence  of  a  purpose  or  problem  of  vital  im- 
port to  the  individual  organizing.  A  vital  problem  is  one  which 
has  a  close  relation  to  an  individual's  experience  and  to  his  needs, 
either  native  or  acquired.  The  purpose,  or  problem,  through  sug- 
gestions made  for  its  solution,  controls  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  materials  essential  to  the  establishment  of  the  conclusion 
sought.  Facts  to  be  of  greatest  value  in  the  solution  of  a  problem 
and,  therefore,  in  the  organization  of  knowledge,  must  be  of  a  qual- 
ity to  make  ready  recognition  of  their  relevancy  to  the  problem 
possible.  The  number  of  facts  to  be  used  in  any  case  will  depend 
upon  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  problem  and  the  maturity  of 
the  individual.  The  general  relation  to  be  established  will  be  sug- 
gested by  the  hypothesis  and  will  be  fully  established  through  sub- 
sequent reasoning  when  facts  relevant  to  the  problem  are  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  determine  the  conclusion  embodying  the 
final  relation  sought.  The  kind  of  organization  resulting  in  any 
case  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  problem  giving  rise  to  it. 
Both  the  conclusion,  or  ultimate  relation  sought,  and  the  grounds, 
or  supporting  data,  will  be  retained  more  or  less  fully  by  the  indi- 
vidual organizing.  Whether  the  arrangement  of  facts  in  any  case 
will  be  of  the  inductive  or  the  deductive  type  will  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  facts  available  for  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

Organization  of  experience  is  not  always  the  product  of  thought; 
it  occurs  automatically  as  well.  Conscious  organization,  however, 
must  ultimately  step  in  to  the  end  that  correlation,  or  systematiza- 
tion,  of  experience  may  take  place. 


CHAPTER  TWO 
ORGANIZATION   GENETICALLY   CONSIDERED 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  an  attempt  was  made  to  show  how 
an  individual  consciously  organizes  the  facts  of  his  experience. 
All  conscious  organization,  it  was  there  stated,  is  performed  under 
stress  of  a  purpose  or  problem.  The  experiences  essential  to  the 
solution  of  such  a  problem  are  selected  and  arranged  in  the  light 
of  a  hypothesis  to  indicate  the  solution  of  the  problem,  the  relation- 
ship in  question.  While,  however,  the  process  of  organization  al- 
ways takes  place  under  the  conditions  suggested,  and  its  product  is 
always  some  sort  of  relationship,  there  are  some  differences  during 
the  several  stages  of  development  of  an  individual  which  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  for  the  purpose  of  the  present  discussion. 
In  the  present  chapter,  therefore,  we  shall  show  how  both  the  proc- 
ess of  organization  and  its  product  differ  in  some  respects  during 
the  several  stages  of  development. 

i.  THE  PROBLEM  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

It  was  pointed  out  above  that  problems,  in  order  to  cause  or- 
ganization of  experience,  must  be  vital  and  that  vital  problems 
have  a  very  intimate  relation  to  both  the  individual's  experience 
and  his  needs.  Now  if  vital  problems  are  an  outgrowth  of  an  in- 
dividual's experience  it  is  evident  that  they  must  differ  greatly  in 
the  several  stages  of  development  of  an  individual.  In  his  early 
school  career  the  child's  experience,  both  because  of  its  limitations 
in  range  and  its  lack  of  coherence,  does  not  enable  him  to  appreciate 
the  significance  of  problems  which  to  the  adult  are  vital;  the  experi- 
ence of  the  ordinary  man  for  the  same  reason  does  not  suggest 
as  many,  nor  the  kind  of,  problems  within  a  given  field  as  that  of 
the  scientist  who  specializes  in  that  field.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
needs  of  these  different  classes  likewise  differ.  The  life  of  the  child 
is  largely  one  of  action;  the  desire  to  do  something,  to  play,  to 
construct,  to  tear  apart,  but  always  to  act,  is  dominant.  Prob- 
lems which  arise  in  his  experience  are  therefore  very  largely  con- 

16 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  17 

earned  with  his  activities.  How  can  I  catch  a  fish,  a  butterfly? 
How  can  I  fix  my  wheelbarrow?  How  can  I  make  a  box,  a  doll- 
house,  a  dress,  a  wagon,  a  popgun,  a  book?  How  can  I  make  my 
batteries  work,  build  a  bridge,  a  waterfall,  fire  a  bowl,  etc.,  are 
problems  illustrating  this  point.  All  of  them  arose  in  connection 
with  the  child's  activities  and  around  them  essential  experiences 
were  organized.  These  early  problems  of  the  child  are  practical 
difficulties,  "  some  thing  to  be  done  or  made,  or  some  tangible 
result  to  be  reached."  We  find  such  problems  in  every  period  of 
life.  The  needs  most  keenly  appreciated  by  the  laboring  man, 
the  business  man,  are  those  which  arise  in  connection  with  their 
business  activities,  their  duties  in  social  and  civic  affairs.  Problems 
to  appear  vital  would  therefore  be  an  outgrowth  of  business,  civic, 
social,  etc.,  experience,  and  be  based  upon  the  respective  needs. 
As  Professor  Dewey  has  pointed  out,  "Intellectual  organization 
originates,  and  for  a  time  grows  as  an  accompaniment  of  the  organi- 
zation of  facts  required  to  realize  an  end  (not  as  a  result  of  a  direct 
appeal  to  thinking  power).  .  .  .  All  people  at  the  outset,  and  the 
majority  of  people  probably  all  their  lives,  attain  ordering  of  thought 
through  ordering  of  action."  1  In  the  early  life  of  the  child,  there- 
fore, —  and  playing  a  very  important  part  of  every  stage  of  the 
elementary  school,  —  the  problem  related  to  some  of  the  child's 
activities,  the  problem  of  action,  must  play  a  leading  part  in  the 
organization  of  his  experiences. 

With  the  first  three  or  four  years  of  the  elementary  school  period 
the  experience  of  the  child  grows  both  in  range  and  in  organiza- 
tion. His  stock  of  imagery  develops  proportionately  and  the  image 
assumes  the  function  of  a  symbol.  "  Imagination  ceases  to  be  so 
blindly  impulsive,  and  images  serve  to  guide  and  direct  activity 
through  a  series  of  steps."  The  child  becomes  conscious  of  the 
distinction  between  means  and  end  and  consequently  a  rapid 
development  in  thinking  power  takes  place  during  the  elementary 
school  period.  The  interests  of  the  child  remain  practical  very 
largely.  Native  tendencies,  such  as  the  constructive  instinct,  the 
instinct  of  inquiry,  of  artistic  expression,  of  communication,  and 
the  acquired  interests  in  occupation  of  the  adults  in  their  environ- 
ment, vocational,  civic,  moral,  religious,  etc.,  are  controlling  factors 
during  this  period.  "  While,  of  course,  we  expect  to  lead  the 
child  to  an  appreciation  of  theoretic  values,  the  dominant  practical 
interest  makes  necessary  a  point  of  contact  in  some  concrete  situa- 
1  How  We  Think,  p.41. 


1 8  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

tion."  2  The  problem  which  assumes  significance  is  the  problem 
of  the  " particular  concrete  whole,"  the  explanation  of  a  specific 
case,  the  problem  which  can  be  solved  by  taking  into  consideration 
the  facts  bearing  upon  a  particular  concrete  whole,  all  of  which  may 
be  observed  directly,  or  may  be  readily  represented  by  the  imagina- 
tion. Why  Cincinnati  can  manufacture  furniture  in  such  large 
quantities;  why  Minneapolis  manufactures  flour  so  extensively; 
how  our  schoolroom  may  be  ventilated;  how  Burgoyne  failed  in 
his  attempt  to  separate  the  New  England  states  from  the  rest  of 
the  country:  these  are  illustrations  of  this  type  of  problem. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  adolescent  period  children  evince  in- 
terest in  another  type  of  problem,  the  problem  dealing  with  uni- 
versal relations,  the  solution  of  which  involves  either  the  de- 
velopment, or  the  application  of  comprehensive  generalizations.3 
The  broader  outlook  upon  life  during  this  period,  a  better  organiza- 
tion of  his  experiences,  a  more  adequate  control  of  the  technique 
of  thinking  make  it  possible  for  him  to  see  the  importance  of  these 
more  comprehensive  problems.  But  there  are  also  new  needs  aris- 
ing at  this  time  which  play  an  important  part  in  making  this  type 
of  problem  appear  vital.  "  Through  the  ripening  and  sudden 
emergence  of  the  sex  instinct,  the  youth  is  made  conscious  that 
the  period  of  childhood  has  come  to  an  end.  The  emergence  of 
the  sex  factor  in  consciousness  is  not  merely  physical  in  its  signif- 
icance, but  even  more  so  social.  It  emphasizes  two  things:  (i) 
that  the  individual  has  come  to  a  period  of  independence  and 
(2)  that  he  is  a  part  of  a  larger  social  whole  than  his  own  family. 
As  a  result  of  the  first  emphasis,  he  is  likely  to  rely  upon  his  own 
judgment;  as  a  result  of  the  second  his  interest  is  suddenly  aroused 
in  the  larger  problems  of  human  life.  ...  In  his  new  sense  of  inde- 
pendence and  personal  responsibility,  he  is  more  likely  to  recon- 
struct his  experiences  along  every  line  consciously  and  reflectively. 
He  must  take  account  of  stock  and  know  where  he  stands.  This, 
together  with  his  broader  outlook  upon  life,  makes  more  emphatic 
his  consciousness  of  the  need  of  fundamental  principles  and  laws. 
Hence  there  develops  a  new  and  keener  interest  in,  and  apprecia- 
tion of,  great  generalizations."  4  While  the  vital  problem  during 
this  period  will  be  such  as  to  lead  to  the  more  fundamental  prin- 
ciples and  laws  of  science  and  the  organization  of  facts  around  them, 
it  is  not  the  problem  of  pure  science  which  is  here  referred  to.  The 

2  Miller,  Psychology  of  Thinking,  p.  183.  3  Ibid.,  pp.  185-188. 

4  Ibid.,  pp.  185-187. 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  19 

latter  presupposes  an  experience  which  in  quantity  and  quality  is 
far  beyond  that  of  the  period  here  concerned,  and  would  therefore 
be  quite  meaningless  at  this  time.  The  significance  in  this  as  in 
the  preceding  periods  is  conditioned  by  its  apparent  relationship 
to  the  experience  of  the  individual. 

Ultimately,  of  course,  we  reach  a  stage  of  development  in  some 
individuals  when  the  problem  most  vital  to  them  is  the  one  dealing 
specifically  with  the  interdependence  of  facts  themselves  .or  aiming 
at  the  development  of  systems  without  a  consideration  of  their 
relation  to  some  immediately  practical  interest.  This  is  the  prob- 
lem of  the  scientist  and  the  philosopher,  and  is  conditioned  by  ex- 
perience beyond  the  majority  of  people.  It  has  for  its  outcome  the 
organization  of  facts  into  science  and  philosophy.5 

The  several  types  of  problems  are  not  intended  as  a  logical  classi- 
fication of  the  conditions  under  which  individuals  organize.  The 
problem  of  action  is  so  named  from  the  manner  in  which  it  arises. 
It  may  aim  at  the  solution  of  a  specific  difficulty,  or  at  the  develop- 
ment of  a  generalization.  It  may  be  solved  by  the  trial  and  error 
method,  by  the  recall  of  a  certain  concrete  experience  applicable 
to  the  case,  or  by  the  use  of  a  principle  or  system  of  knowledge. 
Just  what  method  of  solving  will  be  used  will  depend  upon  the 
amount  and  degree  of  organization  of  experience  available  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  individual's  recognition  of  its  applicability  to 
the  situation  in  hand.  It  is  suggested  as  a  type  because  of  its  fre- 
quency of  appearance  in  child  life. 

The  problem  of  the  concrete  whole  is  named  after  the  method 
used  in  its  solution.  It  may  arise  in  connection  with  some  physical 
activity,  and  may  therefore  be  a  problem  of  action:  or  it  may  be 
of  purely  intellectual  origin.  What  distinguishes  this  problem 
from  others  is  the  fact  that  it  will  be  solved  by  an  appeal  to  the 
elements  within  a  given  concrete  situation,  no  explaining  principles 
being  available  for  the  purpose. 

Problems  aiming  at  the  development  of  generalizations  and 
systems  are  named  after  the  end  in  view  in  their  solution.  The 
former  may  arise  in  connection  with  physical  difficulties;  the  latter 
probably  do  not.  In  the  solution  of  these  problems  a  greater  amount 
and  a  higher  degree  of  organization  of  experience  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding type  are  essential  conditions. 

While  the  several  types  of  problems  do  not  represent  a  logical 
classification  they  will  enable  us  to  trace  the  progressive  organ- 
5  Dewey,  Psychology,  p.  232. 


20  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

ization  of  facts  in  the  several  stages  of  the  individual's  develop- 
ment. 

In  the  discussion  of  these  several  types  of  problems  it  has  been 
found  that  experience  plays  a  very  important  part  in  indicating 
the  nature  of  the  problem  and  showing  its  relation  to  some  need. 
This  appears  evident  from  the  earliest  stages.  Now  in  order  that 
experience  may  be  instrumental  in  giving  rise  to  problems  at  all 
some  degree  of  organization  must  have  taken  place.  It  is  evident 
that  in  the  early  stages  of  the  child's  development  such  organiza- 
tion could  not  have  been  due  to  conscious  effort,  but  was  the  re- 
sult of  automatic  tendencies  instead.  That  experience  so  organized 
would  probably  furnish  an  excellent  source  of  problems  was  pointed 
out  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Having  been  acquired  without  a 
purpose,  and  from  various  sources,  it  will  constitute  a  fertile  field 
fior  conflicts  and  a  fine  opportunity  for  thought  to  bring  order  out  of 
chaos.  Later  in  the  individual's  development  consciously  organ- 
ized experience  will,  of  course,  play  its  part  in  supplying  problems. 

2.   CHOICE  OF  MATERIALS  IN  DIFFERENT  PERIODS  OF 
DEVELOPMENT 

(a)  Kinds  of  Materials.  Facts  or  materials  to  be  valuable  in  the 
solution  of  problems  and,  therefore,  in  the  organization  of  knowl- 
edge, must  be  of  a  quality  to  make  ready  recognition  of  relation- 
ships possible,  it  was  pointed  out  in  the  first  chapter.  They  must 
be  concrete,  in  other  words.  Now  a  fact  which  appears  concrete 
in  one  stage  of  development  may  seem  quite  abstract  in  the  preceding 
period;  whether  it  will  be  regarded  as  concrete  or  abstract  will 
depend  wholly  upon  the  individual's  experience  in  a  given  direction. 
In  case  of  the  novice  in  a  given  field,  or  the  young  child  in  every 
field,  we  are  dealing  with  the  so-called  practical  judgment 6  stage 
of  organization  of  experience.  The  type  of  material  which  has 
meaning  here  is  that  relating  to  some  specific  situation  which  the 
individual  himself  has  observed  and  sufficiently  analyzed  to  recog- 
nize its  various  elements.  Thus  a  boy  confronted  with  the  task 
of  putting  a  barrel,  too  heavy  for  him  to  lift,  upon  a  wagon,  will 
most  likely  recall  how  he  has  seen  somebody  else  load  a  heavy 
barrel  by  the  use  of  planks  or  skids.  This  experience  is  concrete 
and  has  meaning  in  the  present  instance  because  when  observing 
this  process  he  recognized  clearly  the  relation  of  the  use  of  planks 
6  Hobhouse,  Mind  in  Evolution. 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  21 

to  the  loading  of  the  heavy  object;  it  becomes  valuable,  therefore, 
for  use  in  similar  situations.  The  adult,  inexperienced  in  the  use 
of  gasoline  engines,  who  is  having  trouble  with  the  motor  of  his 
car,  is  most  likely  to  recall  how  he  succeeded  in  making  it  go  upon 
a  previous  occasion,  if  at  that  time  he  recognized  clearly,  or  learned 
subsequently,  the  significance  of  his  act  with  reference  to  the  end 
desired.  In  this  stage  of  development,  therefore,  the  individual 
attempts  to  recall  the  essential  elements  of  a  previous  similar 
experience  whose  value  with  regard  to  the  purpose  in  hand  he 
appreciates. 

With  the  increase  of  experience  in  a  given  direction  and  its 
organization  into  generalizations,  or  concepts,  the  latter  may  be 
used  as  readily  in  the  organization  of  new  experiences  as  specific 
facts  were  originally.  The  term  "trade  center,"  the  rule  for  the 
extraction  of  the  square  root,  Ohm's  Law,  etc.,  appear  concrete  to 
an  individual  in  this  stage  because  the  substratum  of  specific  in-r 
stances  has  made  them  so.  These  facts  themselves  express 
relations,  or  organization  of  experience,  and  are  therefore  very 
significant  in  the  further  organization  of  knowledge. 

Ultimately  whole  systems  of  knowledge  may  be  appealed  to  for 
the  purpose  of  solving  problems,  or  organizing  new  facts.  Such 
systems  again  will  rest  upon  the  relations  developed  in  the  earlier 
periods  and  could  not  exist  without  them.  They  are  concrete, 
therefore,  only  to  those  who  have  the  background  of  experience 
to  appreciate  the  relationships  suggested  by  them.  Here  the  so- 
called  facts  are  comprehensive  systems  of  relations  most  valuable 
in  subsequent  organization  of  knowledge. 

Whether  or  not  an  individual  can  use  specific  or  general  facts, 
or  systems  of  knowledge,  in  the  further  organization  of  knowledge 
will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  experience  and  the  degree  of  its 
organization  which  he  has  attained  in  a  given  direction.  Since  a 
person's  experience  in  certain  lines  may  be  of  the  most  exhaustive 
sort  while  in  certain  other  fields  it  may  be  very  meagre,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  amount  and  degree  of  organization  in  a  given  field 
will  determine  the  nature  of  the  facts  which  can  be  used  in  the 
further  organization  of  the  field. 

The  implication  of  this  analysis  for  the  school  is  clear.  Facts  of 
a  specific  nature  must  be  used  in  the  lower  grades  and  in  the  upper 
grades  when  experience  in  a  given  field  is  limited.  To  be  usable, 
however,  such  facts  must  have  a  meaning,  must  have  been  observed 
with  reference  to  some  purpose  which  made  it  possible  for  the  in- 


22  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

dividual  to  perceive  the  relation  of  the  fact  to  certain  other  facts,  or 
of  one  factor  to  the  other  factors  in  a  given  situation.  This  prin- 
ciple has  been  recognized  by  the  introduction  of  "home  geography," 
biographical  history,  nature  study,  and  objective  arithmetic  into 
the  elementary  course  of  study.  To  comply  fully  with  the  princi- 
ple, however,  there  must  be  observation  under  stress  of  some  vital 
purpose,  study  with  reference  to  a  significant  end.  Mere  observa- 
tion of  objects  is  quite  useless  for  the  purpose  of  leading  to  a  per- 
ception of  relationships. 

In  the  use  of  general  facts  in  the  organization  of  knowledge  care 
must  be  taken  that  such  facts  are  actually  within  the  experience 
of  the  child.  Teachers  in  general  are  quite  clear  upon  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  rule  and  definition  in  arithmetic  and  grammar  but 
commonly  fail  to  recognize  the  principle  in  geography,  or  hygiene. 
As  a  consequence  children  are  commonly  called  upon  to  use  general 
facts  in  the  latter  subjects  which  were  never  consciously  developed 
and  so  have  no  meaning  for  them.  Only  the  most  confused  thinking 
is  possible  under  such  conditions. 

(b)  Sources  of  Materials  or  Facts.  The  sources  available  for 
securing  the  necessary  facts  in  the  solution  of  problems  are  of 
several  classes.  The  one  most  immediately  at  hand  in  every  situa- 
tion, the  individual's  experience,  has  been  discussed.  The  impor- 
tance of  its  use  cannot  be  overestimated,  for  only  in  so  far  as  it  is 
used  over  and  over  will  it  come  to  be  thoroughly  unified,  or  system- 
atized. Very  frequently,  however,  previous  experience  will  not 
suffice  and  other  sources  must  be  found.  Such  sources  we  have  in 
the  material  world  of  objects  and  in  the  experience  of  the  race  as 
compiled  in  books  or  handed  down  orally.  The  importance  of 
the  material  world  as  a  source  of  information  has  been  recognized 
long  ago  and  observation  lessons,  or  object  lessons,  have  been 
suggested  as  a  valuable  means  of  acquainting  the  children  with 
the  world  about  them.  The  prevalence  of  the  laboratory  in  the 
higher  schools  also  indicates  how  valuable  this  source  of  informa- 
tion is  considered  for  young  people  and  adults.  The  point  to  be 
emphasized  in  this  connection  is  that  when  experiences  in  a  given 
direction  are  lacking,  or  are  very  limited,  in  number,  this  source 
is  the  most  valuable  of  all  that  we  may  appeal  to.  It  is  here  that 
relationships  to  be  developed  may  be  actually  observed,  that  a 
certain  process  comes  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  cause  of  another,  and 
a  certain  change  in  a  situation  as  an  effect  of  some  factor  called  a 
cause;  that  characteristics  of  objects  come  to  be  appreciated  with 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  23 

reference  to  their  function.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  home  geogra- 
phy, nature  study,  etc.,  have  so  great  a  value  in  supplying  children 
with  facts  or  experiences  in  their  respective  fields.  Here,  again, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  observation  with  reference  to  some 
vital  purpose  or  problem  that  will  enable  the  child  to  see  the  re- 
lationships of  value,  that  will  make  the  fact  concrete  or  meaningful. 
The  absence  of  such  a  purpose  will  leave  the  objective  world  as 
abstract  as  any  group  of  symbols  could  possibly  be. 

Books  constitute  another  valuable  source  of  data.  To  obtain 
information  concerning  the  world  of  things  through  symbols  pre- 
supposes the  necessary  foundation  of  experience  both  with  things 
and  the  symbols  representing  them.  Unless  the  individual  has 
both,  so  that  the  symbol  readily  suggests  the  real  object,  the  symbol 
is  unintelligible  to  him,  it  has  no  meaning.  Now  symbols  may 
designate  some  specific  object  or  situation  in  detail,  or  they  may 
present  an  account  in  a  more  general  or  condensed  form.  In  the 
former  case  children,  who  think  very  largely  in  concrete  imagery, 
are  enabled  to  associate  the  symbol  with  the  image  representing 
the  object;  they  understand.  In  the  latter  case  where  concrete 
imagery  cannot  be  readily  resorted  to  the  statement  remains  mean- 
ingless. Thus  books  may  state  in  sufficient  detail  a  fact  so  that  a 
child  may  understand,  or  they  may  state  the  same  fact  in  more 
condensed  or  abstract  form,  making  it  impossible  for  him  to  com- 
prehend its  meaning.  In  the  former  case  only  will  the  book  be 
worth  while  as  a  source  of  information  for  the  child.  The  use  of 
general  facts,  or  of  condensed  accounts,  in  books  intended  for 
children  will  be  permissible  only  when  there  is  a  basis  in  children's 
experience  for  the  comprehension  of  such  facts.  That  text-books 
used  with  children  in  the  elementary  school  are  often  seriously  at 
fault  in  this  respect  may  be  shown  by  the  following  incident.  A 
paragraph  appearing  in  a  geography  text  recently  published  was 
handed  to  a  professor  in  a  western  university  with  the  request  to 
explain  it.  The  professor,  a  doctor  of  philosophy,  replied  that  he 
could  not  understand  the  paragraph  and  therefore  was  unable  to 
do  so.  And  yet  the  paragraph  was  intended  for  children  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  grades  in  the  elementary  school.  If  books  are  to 
be  really  worth  while  as  sources  of  information  the  facts  presented 
must  be  stated  in  a  manner  sufficiently  concrete  to  connect  with 
the  experiences  of  those  for  whom  they  are  intended  and  so  to 
make  ready  understanding  possible. 

(c)  Number  of  Facts  in  Different  Periods.     The  number  of  facts 


24  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

used  by  an  individual  for  the  solution  of  a  problem,  too,  will  be 
affected  by  his  stage  of  development.  Professor  Dewey  has  pointed 
out  that  empirical  thinking  —  that  of  children  and  untrained 
adults  —  is  less  thorough  in  its  analysis  of  the  problem,  less  careful 
in  tracing  connections  of  materials  used  for  the  solution,  less  expert 
in  evaluating  them,  more  likely  to  be  wrong  in  its  conclusions  than 
scientific  thinking;  that  it  makes  a  " hurried  jump  from  one  con- 
sideration to  another,  allowing  its  (our)  aversion  to  mental  dis- 
quietude to  override  the  gaps."  7  This  implies  that  the  empirical 
thinker  when  left  to  himself  will  not  construct  a  closely  reasoned 
answer  to  the  problem  before  him.  Not  capable  of  thoroughly 
analyzing  the  problem  into  its  elements  and  following  up  the  infer- 
ences suggested  at  various  stages,  he  does  not  require  the  numerous 
facts  or  materials  which  are  essential  to  the  scientific  thinker.8  Illus- 
trations of  this  kind  of  thinking  are  numerous  in  the  everyday  life 
of  business,  politics,  and  elsewhere,  where  fantastic  solutions  of 
problems,  or  theories,  are  advanced  which  are  unsound  largely, 
because  not  all  of  the  "facts  in  the  case"  have  been  considered  and 
evaluated.  Illustrations  of  children's  characteristics  in  this  re- 
spect are  given  in  the  third  chapter  of  this  discussion. 

3.  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FACTS  IN  DIFFERENT  PERIODS 

(a)  Stages  in  the  Organization  of  Knowledge.  The  relationships 
resulting,  the  organization  established  as  a  result  of  the  solution 
of  a  problem,  will  differ  in  both  comprehensiveness  and  quality 
according  to  the  age  of  the  individual,  or  his  experience  in  a  given 
field.  The  child  will  think  of  his  cat  as  a  pet  to  be  played  with;  a 
pet  that  can  climb  a  tree,  catch  mice,  land  on  its  feet  when  thrown 
in  the  air,  swim  to  the  shore  when  thrown  in  the  water,  defend 
itself  against  the  neighbor's  dog,  etc.,  and  he  may  know  enough 
about  the  structure  and  other  characteristics  of  the  cat  to  under- 
stand why  it  can  do  some  of  these  things.  The  relationships  here 
suggested  are  of  a  functional  character  and  any  one  of  them  in- 
volves but  a  limited  number  of  data.  That  this  is  the  usual  type 
of  organization  resulting  in  early  childhood  is  borne  out  by  evi- 
dence from  psychologists  upon  the  basis  of  children's  definitions. 

7  How  We  Think,  pp.  80,  145-156. 

8  Children  cannot  manage  any  considerable  number  of  facts  in  working  over 
a  problem.    History  teachers  in  the  high  school  even  have  found  that  extensive 
use  of  source  materials  is  impossible  because  of  children's  inability  to  deal  with 
large  masses  of  data. 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  25 

Meumann  points  out  that  the  following  stages  of  development 
are  discernible  in  children's  definitions:  (i)  the  mere  repetition 
stage,  children  merely  repeating  the  term  they  are  asked  to  define; 
(2)  explanation  of  the  term  by  stating  its  function;  (3)  definition 
by  attempt  to  analyze  and  describe;  (4)  attempts  at  actual  defini- 
tion. Barnes  holds  that  "  young  children  define  things  almost 
entirely  by  their  use;  at  eleven,  definition  by  a  larger,  more  generic 
term  is  well  developed,  as  is  definition  by  stating  the  substance  of 
which  a  thing  is  made,  while  at  fifteen  most  of  the  definitions  for 
both  sexes  were  by  invoking  the  larger  term."  Kirkpatrick  agrees 
on  the  whole  with  these  statements  but  suggests  that  the  larger 
terms  which  are  first  used  at  about  the  tenth  year  come  to  be  used 
more  accurately  during  the  thirteenth  year.  Shaw  found  that 
"use  was  predominant  at  all  ages  and  definition  by  the  larger  term, 
although  it  increased  with  years,  was  rare."  9  Meumann,  comment- 
ing upon  the  development  of  the  meaning  of  terms,  states  that  the 
logical  capacities  of  children  appear  rather  meagre,  that  they  have 
no  real  understanding  of  the  larger  terms,  that,  for  this  reason,  they 
comprehend  the  classifications  of  natural  science  relatively  late, 
and  that  often  they  include  things  quite  unlike  under  the  same  con- 
cept upon  the  basis  of  very  superficial  resemblances.10  Now  since 
children's  definitions  are  an  indication  of  the  organization  of  their 
knowledge,  the  conclusion  stated  above  will  be  supported  by  this 
evidence  from  psychologists. 

Not  only  does  the  organization  of  children  involve  but  few  facts 
and  these  of  a  functional  significance,  however;  there  is  also  but 
little  interrelation  of  those  facts  which  in  adult  experience  would 
be  causally  connected.  This  is  true  to  so  great  an  extent  that 
Professor  Dewey  characterizes  such  organization  as  fragmentary, 
as  "an  aggregation,  not  a  system  of  facts." 

In  a  subsequent  period  of  development  the  individual  will  come 
to  think  of  the  cat  as  an  organism  that  can  breathe,  digest  food  of 
certain  kinds,  catch  its  prey,  reproduce,  etc.,  and  that  for  each  of 
its  functions  there  is  an  appropriate  organ.  Here  the  idea  of  the 
cat  involves  a  great  many  more  experiences,  no  longer  of  a  super- 
ficial sort,  and  all  of  them  are  more  or  less  completely  knitted  into 
the  meaning  of  the  term  'cat.'  The  ' concept'  cat  here  has  become 
much  more  completely  developed  than  in  the  preceding  period; 
the  specific  experiences  of  the  earlier  period  and  additional  experi- 
ences since  acquired  have  become  interrelated.  Rules,  principles, 

9  Cited  in  Hall's  Adolescence,  II,  p.  486.          10  Vorlesungen,  I,  pp.  377-378. 


26  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

general  facts  of  various  sorts  come  to  be  formed  in  this  stage  and 
come  to  take  their  part  in  the  child's  subsequent  thinking.  There 
is  evidence  both  in  the  statements  of  psychologists  cited  above  and 
in  the  illustrations  of  the  next  chapter  that  the  upper  grades  of 
the  elementary  school  mark  the  beginning  of  the  period  when  this 
degree  of  organization  comes  to  play  a  part  in  the  life  of  the  child. 

Finally  there  comes  a  stage  in  the  individual's  intellectual  devel- 
opment when  he  thinks  of  the  cat  not  merely  as  an  organism  but 
as  an  organism  related  to  a  most  comprehensive  system  of  other 
organisms.  Thus  he  will  regard  the  cat,  because  of  certain  char- 
acteristics, as  a  member  of  the  cat  family,  the  genus  mammals, 
and  the  phylum  vertebrates.  Here  again  we  have  a  much  more 
comprehensive  organization  and  of  a  much  higher  order.  Now 
the  generalizations,  or  concepts,  of  the  preceding  period  have  be- 
come related  into  systems  of  biology,  physics,  ethics,  etc.  Such 
systems  have  been  described  as  a  form  of  organization  in  which  a 
very  large  number  of  facts  and  ideas  are  arranged  as  a  series  of 
premises  and  conclusions,  going  by  orderly  steps  from  the  general 
to  the  particular.11  This  degree  of  organization  implies  that  (i) 
generalizations  covering  certain  groups  of  phenomena  have  been 
consciously  developed;  (2)  these  generalizations  are  as  accurate 
and  as  comprehensive  in  range  as  reflection  can  make  them  at  the 
present  time;  (3)  consecutive  relationships  are  indicated  by  the 
use  of  deductive  arrangements  of  materials,  the  order  best  suited 
for  the  purpose.  This  degree  of  organization  is  reached  by  com- 
paratively few  people  and  by  them  only  in  their  special  lines  of 
endeavor. 

(b)  Progress  from  Lower  to  Higher  Forms  of  Organization.  "  How 
shall  the  individual  pass  from  the  lower  to  the  higher -stages  in  the 
organization  of  knowledge?  It  was  shown  that  the  impetus  to  all 
organization  of  experience  is  the  problem  of  vital  significance  to 
the  individual;  that  with  the  increase  of  experience  and  maturity 
of  the  individual  the  problem  gradually  increased  in  comprehen- 
siveness and  complexity.  Now  corresponding  to  the  increasing 
complexity  of  the  problem  there  appears  a  more  thorough  inte- 
gration of  the  facts  used  in  its  solution.  Thus  the  early  problems 
of  the  child  which  he  himself  answers  are  very  simple,  necessarily 
so  because  the  judgment,  or  ability  to  think,  available  for  their 
solution  is  but  feeble  at  best.  The  resulting  organization  of  experi- 
ence is  equally  unsatisfactory,  the  child  usually  seizing  upon  one 
11  Dewey,  art.  "System,"  Monroe  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  27 

of  the  numerous  elements  in  a  situation  only  and  using  that 
for  his  needs.  Since  the  number  of  problems  with  which  he  deals 
is  considerable,  the  associations  are  made  with  numerous  points  12 
of  contact  and  thus  "  these  various  bits  of  knowledge  may  lie  along- 
side of  each  other  in  his  mind  for  a  considerable  time  before  any 
necessary  relation  or  connection  is  established  between  them."  13 
"What  shall  I  feed  my  cat?  "  "  How  does  it  scratch  me?  "  "  How 
can  it  climb  a  tree?"  etc.,  may  give  rise  to  the  judgments  "My  cat 
likes  milk,  mice,  birds";  "She  scratches  me  with  her  claws";  etc. 
These  facts  may  all  be  associated  with  the  cat  by  the  child  but  may 
be  retained  by  him  as  so  many  isolated  bits  of  information  wholly 
unrelated  among  themselves.  Later,  however,  such  problems  as 
the  following  arise:  "Why  does  my  cat  have  such  ugly  teeth  and 
sharp  claws?"  "Why  does  Cincinnati  manufacture  shoes,  furni- 
ture, pottery,  tools  and  machinery,  and  pack  pork  to  so  great  an 
extent?  "  Here  not  only  will  a  considerably  larger  number  of  facts 
be  needed  for  the  solution  of  the  problem  than  in  the  former  instan- 
ces, but  interrelations  between  the  facts  used  will  be  established. 
To  solve  the  latter  problem  we  may  take  the  several  manufactures 
of  Cincinnati  and  find  out  the  value  of  each.  We  may  then  inquire 
into  the  reasons  why  the  particular  industry  has  become  a  success 
here.  We  shall  in  this  manner  discover  that  Cincinnati  manu- 
factures iron  goods  because  iron  could  formerly  be  obtained  from 
the  Great  Lakes  over  the  Miami  Canal  and  now  by  way  of  the  Ohio 
River  as  well  as  by  rail.  Since  river  transportation  is  cheaper  than 
shipping  by  rail,  the  cost  of  securing  the  raw  materials  is  not  very 
great  and  the  necessary  materials  are  easily  brought  to  Cincinnati. 
Here  iron  articles  of  various  kinds  are  manufactured.  An  abun- 
dance of  intelligent  labor  makes  this  possible.  Because  of  the 
numerous  railroads  connecting  Cincinnati  with  all  parts  of  the 
country  as  well  as  because  of  her  river  connections,  she  can  then 
ship  her  manufactured  products  to  different  parts  of  the  country. 
The  packing  industry  may  then  be  studied.  Why  has  this  become 
important?  Why  does  it  flourish?  Having  previously  studied  the 
farm  products  of  this  region,  the  fact  will  have  been  noted  that  a 
great  many  hogs  are  raised  in  the  territory  within  easy  access  of 
the  city.  These  are  shipped  there  over  the  many  railroads  extend- 
ing out  from  the  city  in  every  direction.  In  the  city  the  hogs  are 
killed  and  made  into  hams,  bacon,  sausages,  fresh  pork,  etc.  Later 

12  Automatic  organization  accomplishes  a  similar  result. 

13  Lang,  p.  46. 


28  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

these  products  are  again  shipped  to  different  parts  of  the  country 
by  rail  and  by  boat.  •  In  this  manner  the  more  prominent  industries 
of  the  city  may  be  studied.  The  outcome  of  such  a  study  would 
be  something  like  the  following.  The  partial  summaries  might  be: 
Cincinnati  makes  iron  goods  successfully  because  she  can  secure 
both  iron  and  coal  quite  cheaply  by  way  of  the  Ohio  River,  manu- 
facture this  iron  into  articles  of  various  kinds  because  she  has  the 
necessary  workmen,  and  send  out  her  manufactured  goods  to  different 
parts  of  the  country  because  of  her  many  railroads.  She  has  be- 
come an  important  packing  center  because  hogs  are  raised  in  the 
surrounding  territory  and  can  readily  be  carried  into  the  city  by 
way  of  the  railroads,  where  they  are  manufactured  into  meat. 
The  meat  is  then  shipped  by  rail  and  boat  to  various  parts  of  the 
surrounding  country.  A  considerable  portion  of  it  is  consumed 
at  home,  etc.  The  final  conclusion  might  be:  Cincinnati  can  manu- 
facture machinery,  tools,  shoes,  meat,  pottery,  etc.,  because  she  can 
easily  obtain  the  raw  material  out  of  which  they  are  made  and  the 
necessary  coal  for  power;  she  has  the  necessary  labor  for  manufac- 
turing and  she  can  dispose  of  her  products  over  the  many  railroads ' 
which  connect  her  with  the  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Here  then,  because  of  the  nature  of  the  problem,  a  considerable 
number  of  facts  is  related  into  a  single  unit  of  organization.  More- 
over, the  facts  used  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  are  shown  to 
be  related  in  numerous  instances.  Thus  farming  in  this  region  is 
seen  to  be  related  to  the  packing  industry,  and  the  farmer  is  related 
to  all  of  the  city's  industries  as  a  consumer  of  her  products.  The 
river  is  seen  to  be  of  direct  use  to  the  city  as  a  highway  of  com- 
merce. The  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  make 
manufacturing  in  Cincinnati  possible.  Clay  and  lumber  in  the 
Ohio  valley  make  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  furniture  possible. 
Cincinnati's  excellent  industrial  schools  make  possible  the  train- 
ing of  intelligent  workmen  for  her  factories.  These  are  a  few  of 
the  many  interrelations  of  facts  established. 

To  solve  the  problem  "What  enables  cities  to  carry  on  manu- 
facturing successfully?"  is  a  far  more  comprehensive  task,  involv- 
ing the  manipulation  of  a  great  many  more  data,  their  evaluation 
and  interpretation,  and  leading  therefore  to  a  much  more  com- 
prehensive organization  than  the  problem  just  discussed.  Such  a 
problem  could  arise  only  after  various  cities  have  been  studied  in 
which  the  reasons  assigned  for  the  importance  of  certain  industries 
vary.  Thus  it  may  have  been  found  that  in  some  cases  the  city  is 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  29 

located  in  the  region  supplying  the  raw  materials.  Birmingham, 
Alabama,  and  Birmingham,  England,  are  cases  in  point.  In  some 
cases  cities  are  far  away  from  the  source  of  raw  materials;  Trenton, 
N.J.,  importing  clay  for  its  pottery  industry  from  England;  Man- 
chester, England,  importing  cotton  from  the  United  States,  illus- 
trate this  point.  Sometimes  both  raw  material  and  fuel  for  power 
need  to  be  shipped  to  the  city  as  is  the  caSe  with  many  of  the  New 
England  cities.  After  these  apparently  conflicting  facts  have  been 
discovered  the  problem  arises.  To  solve  it  the  facts  already  known 
must  be  harmonized  and  the  tentative  conclusion  tested  in  other 
situations.  Thus  it  must  be  asked,  What  is  the  advantage  of  near- 
ness of  raw  materials?  the  answer  being,  of  course,  cheapness  in 
securing  the  necessary  supplies.  Now  if  it  is  possible  to  establish 
the  fact  that  sometimes  materials  may  be  carried  over  long  distances 
at  small  cost  —  as  in  case  of  clay  brought  to  Trenton,  N.J.,  from 
England,  —  the  explaining  principle  now  becomes  "raw  materials 
must  be  procurable  at  a  comparatively  low  cost."  Again  some 
manufacturing  cities  are  located  on  waterfalls  and  obtain  their 
power  from  this  source ;  others  are  located  near  the  coal  fields  whence 
they  receive  their  fuel  for  steam  power;  a  third  class  is  some  dis- 
tance from  either  water  power  or  coal  fields  and  must  ship  its  coal 
some  distance;  while  still  others  may  use  electric  power.  It  is 
evident  that  no  one  kind  of  power  is  essential  to  manufacturing 
cities,  but  some  power  is  absolutely  essential  to  run  the  machinery. 
Here  again  it  will  be  found  that  cheapness  of  power  is  a  desidera- 
tum and  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  cities  having  cheaper 
power  can  manufacture  goods  most  economically.  In  a  similar 
manner  children  may  arrive  at  the  other  factors  essential  to  the 
success  of  manufacturing,  the  final  generalization  being  that  "Suc- 
cessful manufacturing  cities  must  have  an  abundance  of  raw  mate- 
rials accessible,  must  have  power  in  some  form,  must  have  means 
of  transportation,  must  have  markets,  must  have  sufficiently  intel- 
ligent labor  and  be  able  to  secure  the  necessary  capital  to  finance 
the  undertakings." 

From  this  account  it  may  be  seen  that  it  is  by  a  continuous 
process  of  reorganization  under  stress  of  vital  problems  becoming 
increasingly  comprehensive  that  the  experience  of  the  child  comes 
to  be  organized  more  and  more  completely  until  system  finally 
results. 

(c)  Relation  of  the  Several  Stages  of  Organization  to  Each  Other. 
From  the  discussion  of  the  preceding  point  as  well  as  from  the  ac- 


30  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

count  of  the  manner  in  which  relationships  are  worked  out  (Chapter 
I)  it  must  have  become  evident  that  each  of  the  successive  stages 
in  the  organization  of  experience  is  essential  to  subsequent  ones. 
Thus  it  was  found  that  automatic  organization  played  a  significant 
part  in  giving  rise  to  certain  problems  leading  to  conscious  organi- 
zation. The  organization  of  facts  resulting  from  the  solution  of 
problems  of  the  'concrete  whole'  was  found  to  be  essential  in  sug- 
gesting problems  having  for  their  purpose  the  development  of  gen- 
eralizations, while  the  organization  resulting  from  the  latter  type 
of  problem  will  ultimately  lead  to  the  most  comprehensive  form  of 
organization  of  experience,  'system.'  Not  only  do  the  successive 
products  of  organization  give  rise  to  new  purposes  or  problems, 
however;  they  also  constitute  the  very  materials  to  be  used  in  the 
further  organization  of  knowledge.  Thus  the  significance  of  a  good 
harbor,  of  good  connections  with  the  natural  resources  of  the  coun- 
try, of  the  ocean  as  a  highway  of  commerce,  must  be  used  in  order 
to  appreciate  the  location  of  New  York  as  the  cause  of  its  growth. 
The  early  experience  of  the  child  with  the  cat  is  essential  to  his 
comprehension  of  the  cat  as  an  organism,  while  the  youth's  under- 
standing of  the  cat  as  an  organism  is  imperative  to  the  man's  con- 
ception of  this  organism  as  related  to  other  organisms  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  To  arrive  at  the  higher  forms  of  organization  of  knowl- 
edge, therefore,  the  individual  must  pass  through  the  lower  stages. 

3.   CONCLUSIONS 

1.  Problems  leading  to  organization  of  experience  differ  in  the 
several   stages   of   development.     Those   prominent   in   the   order 
named  are  the  problem  arising  in  connection  with  some  physical 
activity  the  problem  of  the  'concrete  whole,'  the  problem  aiming 
at  the  building  up  of  generalizations  or  concepts,  and  the  problem 
leading  to  system. 

2.  Organized  experience  is  an  essential  condition  to  the  setting 
up  of  purposes,  or  problems,  for  further  organization. 

3.  Materials  to  be  of  value  in  the  organization  of  knowledge  must 
differ  in  the  several  stages  —  even  within  a  given  stage  when  the 
amount  and  organization  of  experience  differs  in  different  fields. 
First-hand  experience,   accounts  of    concrete,   specific    situations, 
general  facts  and  systems  of  facts  and  ideas  indicate  the  kinds 
usable  and  the  order  in  which  they  will  be  used.     While  the  indi- 
vidual's experience  should  be  first  resorted  to,  further  reorganiza- 


Organization  Genetically  Considered  31 

tion  of  knowledge  frequently  demands  the  use  of  other  sources. 
The  material  world  offers  the  best  source  for  the  inexperienced  and, 
therefore,  for  children.  When  books  are  used  they  should  present 
facts  in  a  manner  intelligible  to  children  who  are  to  use  them.  The 
number  of  facts  usable  in  any  unit  of  organization  will  depend  upon 
the  maturity  of  the  individual. 

4.  The  degree  of  organization  of  knowledge  attained  differs  in 
the  several  periods.  The  organization  of  young  children  is  frag- 
mentary, largely  with  reference  to  immediate  use,  and  lacking  in 
interrelations.  With  the  beginning  of  about  the  grammar  grade 
period  specific  experiences  come  to  be  condensed  into  concepts  and 
interrelations  are  being  consciously  developed.  The  ultimate 
stage,  that  of  system,  marks  the  most  complete  organization  of 
knowledge  and  is  characterized  by  both  number  of  experiences  in- 
cluded and  completeness  of  interrelations  formed.  Progress  from 
one  stage  to  another  is  possible  only  by  continuous  reorganization 
of  experience  under  stress  of  increasingly  comprehensive  vital  prob- 
lems. Each  stage  is  essential  as  a  basis  for  further  progress  in  that 
it  must  supply  both  the  purposes,  or  problems,  inducing  subse- 
quent organizations,  and,  in  a  measure,  the  materials  with  which  to 
develop  them. 


CHAPTER   THREE 

ORGANIZATION  AS   A  FACTOR  IN   CHILD   LIFE 
i.   How  ADULTS  MEET  DEMAND  FOR  ORGANIZATION  RECALLED 

IN  the  preceding  chapters  an  attempt  was  made  to  show  how 
the  mind  organizes  its  experiences.  Adults,  it  was  there  said, 
organize  under  stress  of  a  vital  problem.  Such  problems  vary  in 
comprehensiveness  and  in  closeness  to  'practical'  affairs  of  life, 
but  they  are  always  an  outgrowth  of  the  individual's  experience 
and  are  intimately  related  to  some  need.  To  solve  such  a  problem 
facts  are  selected  upon  the  basis  of  their  relevancy  to  the  problem 
and  are  drawn  from  (i)  the  experience  of  the  individual,  and  (2) 
other  sources,  in  sufficient  number  to  satisfy  the  individual  that  the 
problem  is  satisfactorily  solved,  the  organization  complete.  The 
mere  presence  of  the  facts  chosen  does  not  constitute  a  solution  of 
the  problem;  they  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  indicate  clearly  how 
they  contribute  to  the  surmounting  of  the  difficulty.  In  case  the 
principle  necessary  for  the  solution  of  a  problem  has  not  yet  been 
established,  the  inductive  arrangement  is  followed,  the  selection  of 
a  sufficient  number  of  representative  facts  upon  which  the  principle 
in  question  may  be  based;  when,  on  the  other  hand,  a  problem  is 
to  be  solved  and  the  necessary  principle,  or  principles,  are  in  the 
experience  of  the  individual  the  deductive  arrangement  is  followed. 
In  the  latter  case  the  principles  may  be  introduced  at  once  and  the 
facts  bearing  upon  the  case  later,  the  chief  task  being  to  show  that 
the  present  problematic  situation  is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the 
principles  stated.  The  nature  of  the  facts  recalled  for  the  purpose 
of  solving  a  problem  depends  upon  the  degree  of  organization  of 
experiences  which  the  individual  has  attained  in  the  given  sphere. 
Thus  either  a  single  concrete  experience,  a  concept  representing 
the  essential  elements  of  a  number  of  concrete  experiences,  or  a 
comprehensive  system  of  knowledge  vast  in  extent  and  compact 
in  organization  may  be  resorted  to  for  this  purpose.  The  organi- 
zation of  an  individual's  experience  becomes  more  and  more  com- 
pact, unified,  systematic  in  so  far  as  problems  increasingly  complex 
are  successfully  solved. 

32 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  33 

In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  attempt  to  show  the  extent  to 
which  children  conform  to  the  methods  of  the  adult  in  this  respect. 
Is  organization  a  factor  in  child  life?  If  so,  how  do  children  organ- 
ize? Do  children  conceive  problems?  How  do  they  arise?  What 
is  their  nature?  What  is  their  method  of  solving  them?  What  is 
the  nature  of  the  experiences  which  they  resort  to  in  solving  them? 
In  what  form  do  they  recall  their  experiences?  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  resulting  organization? 

2.   EXTENT  TO  WHICH  CHILDREN  CONFORM  TO  THE  PROCEDURE 
OF  ADULTS  IN  MATTER  OF  ORGANIZATION 

(a)  Does  Organization  Play  Any  Part  in  the  Lives  of  Children? 

A  little  boy  *  five  years  old  found  out  that  his  grandfather,  whom  he  occa- 
sionally visited,  never  left  the  house  without  his  hat  on.  The  reason  for  his  grand- 
father's custom  was  his  extreme  baldness.  The  boy  intimated  that  it  would  be 
great  fun  to  get  his  grandfather  to  go  out  without  his  hat;  but  how  to  do  this  was 
the  question.  He  observed  that  the  baker  called  at  the  house  daily  and  that  the 
grandfather  usually  was  the  one  to  go  out  to  the  street  to  buy  the  bread.  At 
such  times  he  noticed  that  he  must  hurry  lest  the  baker  drive  on.  The  boy  there- 
fore decided  that  this  would  be  his  opportunity.  Consequently  on  a  following 
day,  when  the  baker  again  appeared,  grandfather's  hat  could  not  be  found  and 
he  had  to  go  out  to  the  street  without  it. 

Three  little  girls  were  seated  on  a  window  seat  looking  out  of  the  window. 
One  of  them  quite  accidentally  spilt  a  box  of  buttons.  A  boy,  D.,  eight  years  old, 
who  had  observed  the  spilling  of  the  buttons,  immediately  insisted  that  P.,  the 
little  girl,  pick  them  up;  P.,  however,  refused  to  do  so.  How  can  she  be  made 
to  pick  them  up?  She  wants  to  continue  to  look  out  of  the  window  with  the  other 
girls;  he  therefore  attempts  to  prevent  her  from  doing  so  by  pulling  the  shade. 
But  this  is  a  matter  of  indifference  to  her  since  her  companions  also  suffer  the  same 
punishment,  and  she  tells  him  so.  D.  therefore  tells  the  two  girls  not  concerned 
in  the  difficulty  to  go  to  another  room  to  look  out.  When  they  do  so  P.  attempts 
to  go  with  them  but  is  headed  off  by  D.  She  then  picks  up  the  buttons  and  is 
permitted  to  leave  the  room. 

A  group  of  about  ten  children, 2  most  of  them  in  the  fourth  grade,  devised  a  new 
mode  of  using  the  playground  slide.  Instead  of  going  down  feet  first,  according 
to  custom,  it  was  decided  to  go  down  head  first.  To  keep  from  getting  hurt  the 
children  agreed  that  the  person  sliding  down  should  be  caught  by  the  one  who 
had  gone  before.  No  child  made  the  descent  before  she  had  assured  herself  that 
some  one  was  there  to  catch  her.  Only  once  a  girl  forgot  to  wait  at  the  foot  of 
the  slide  until  the  next  girl  came  down,  but  she  was  promptly  recalled  by  the 
latter.  Each  girl  awaited  her  turn  in  great  orderliness. 

1  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  Blanche  McDill,  of  the  Teachers  College,  Miami  Uni- 
versity, for  this  account. 

2  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  Anna  J.  Beiswenger,  of  the  Teachers  College,  Miami 
University,  for  this  account  of  the  incident. 


34  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

These  illustrations  of  children's  organization  of  plans  of  pro- 
cedure could  be  duplicated  many  times;  they  will  suffice,  however, 
to  show  that  children,  like  adults,  organize.  That  their  mode 
of  organization  is  quite  similar  to  that  followed  by  adults  will  be 
shown  in  the  later  pages  of  the  chapter. 

(b)  Why  Do  Children  Organize? 

The  first  example  above  is  an  illustration  of  organization  during 
the  pre-school  period.  The  child  here  organizes  a  mode  of  pro- 
cedure because  he  wishes  to  accomplish  a  certain  end  which  seems 
very  much  worth  while  to  him.  To  see  the  grandfather  go  out  to 
the  street  bare-headed  would  be  great  fun  indeed.  However, 
while  this  outcome  is  eagerly  desired,  the  way  to  accomplish  it  is 
not  so  clear;  no  ready-made  plan  is  at  hand  waiting  to  be  carried 
out.  The  end  to  be  attained,  in  other  words,  involves  a  difficulty 
to  be  overcome,  a  problem  to  be  solved. 

Examples  two  and  three  are  illustrations  of  organization  during 
the  school  period  but  in  connection  with  out-of-school  affairs. 
Here  again  practical  ends  are  to  be  accomplished  and  in  both  cases 
they  appear  worth  while.  D.  knows  from  previous  experience 
that  unless  he  can  get  some  one  else  to  pick  up  the  buttons  the  task 
will  be  his;  or,  possibly,  he  wishes  to  punish  P.  for  her  carelessness. 
In  the  case  of  the  girls  and  the  slide  a  new  form  of  play  is  to  be  en- 
joyed; a  form,  too,  quite  out  of  the  ordinary  and,  therefore,  all  the 
more  desirable.  In  neither  case  is  there  an  acceptable  plan  at  hand; 
both  ends  involve  problems.  In  out-of-school  life,  therefore, 
whether  before  the  beginning  of  the  school  period  or  after,  that 
which  induces  a  child  to  organize  experiences  consciously  is  a 
definite,  vital  problem. 

(c)  What  Is  the  Nature  of  Problems  which  Impel  Organization? 

Both  in  pre-school  life  and  in  out-of-school  life  during  the  ele- 
mentary school  period  the  problems  appear  to  be  largely  those 
relating  to  some  practical  interest  of  the  child.  How  to  get  Grand- 
father to  go  out  bare-headed,  how  to  get  P.  to  pick  up  the  buttons 
spilt  by  her,  how  to  use  the  slide  in  a  new  way,  all  illustrate  this 
fact.  The  problems  which  arose  in  connection  with  the  building 
of  the  boat  stated  below  are  also  cases  in  point.  This  is  precisely 
what  one  should  have  expected;  the  most  characteristic  thing  about 
children  is  their  activity,  not  their  tendency  toward  speculative 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  35 

thought.     Their  thinking  and  organizing  will  therefore  be  done  in 
connection  with  their  activities. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  get  any  information  worth  while  upon  this 
point  from  children's  work  in  school.     Our  school  work  in  most 
places  is  not  so  arranged  as  to  take  into  consideration  children's 
native  tendencies;    if  it  were  we  should  undoubtedly  find  that 
children's  thinking  and  organizing  in  school  is  done  under  the  same 
conditions  as  outside  of   school.     Even  when   children  are   urged 
to  state  those  problems  only  which  they  would  really  regard  worth 
while  in  connection  with  a  given  situation  they  hesitate  to  do  so 
and  frequently  mention  some  which  in  their  previous  experience  have 
been  approved  as  ' proper.'     The  problems  stated  below  are  there- 
fore problems  which  children  give  as  worth  while  for  discussion 
when  recognizing  that  they  are  working  under  school  conditions. 
"  Did  the  boy  get  his  meal  back?  "  and  "  How  did  he  get  it  back?" 
were  the  two  problems  suggested  by  a  group  of  second-grade  children 
who  had  been  told  the  story  of  the  Northwind  up  to  the  point  where 
the  boy  says,  "I  will  go  after  the  Northwind  and  make  him  give 
me  back  my  meal."     "Why  were  the  Indians  so  friendly  to  Mar- 
quette  and  Joliet  when  Boone  always  had  to  fight  them,"  was  sug- 
gested by  a  fifth-grade  boy  when  studying  Marquette  and  Joliet's 
explorations   after   having   previously   read   the   story   of   Boone. 
Upon  the  basis  of  the  paragraph  on  Colorado  given  on  pages  62-63 
the  following  problems  were  suggested  by  a  fifth  grade:   "Why  do 
people  go  to  Colorado  for  their  health?"     "Why  do  they  raise  so 
many  cattle?"     "Why  does  it  rain  so  much  more  in  Ohio  than  in 
Colorado?  "     "  How  does  it  come  that  with  so  little  rainfall  and  such 
a  dry  climate,  it  can  raise  so  many  farm  products  and  fruits?" 
"Why  do  people  go  sight-seeing  to  Colorado  rather  than  to  other 
states?" 

Having  been  asked  to  read  the  paragraph  on  Canada  on  page  64 
and  to  write  down  any  questions  or  problems  which  the  paragraph 
suggested  to  them,  or  which  their  knowledge  of  the  subject  might 
suggest  to  them,  a  seventh  grade  wrote  the  following  questions: 
"Why  do  Americans  go  to  Canada  thinking  they  can  make  more 
money  than  in  their  own  country?"  "What  makes  so  many  people 
want  to  go  to  Winnipeg? "  "Why  is  Winnipeg  located  where  it  is?  " 
"Why  is  Winnipeg  a  close  rival  of  Minneapolis?"  "Why  is  the 
land  between  Lake  Erie,  Lake  Huron,  and  Lake  Ontario  the  best 
land  in  Canada?"  "Why  is  the  land  just  beyond  the  United 
States  boundary  north  of  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  so  valuable?  " 


36  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

"Why  do  they  want  to  belong  to  England?  (I  should  think  they 
would  want  to  be  a  free  nation.)  England  was  mean  to  us.  Canada 
is  large.  We  fought  to  be  a  free  nation;  it  looks  as  though  Canada 
would."  "What  makes  Canada  excellent  farming  country?" 
"Why  is  the  soil  rich  in  certain  places  and  not  in  others?"  "Why 
is  the  best  farming  land  around  the  lakes?"  "Why  has  Winnipeg 
grown  so  large?"  Other  questions  raised  by  the  children  without 
the  assistance  of  the  paragraph  were:  "How  big  is  Canada?" 
"What  does  she  manufacture?"  "When  was  Canada  founded?" 
"What  are  some  of  the  large  cities?"  "Do  we  trade  extensively 
with  Canada?"  "Will  Canada's  wealth  aid  England  in  the  war?" 
"How  important  is  Canada  to  England?"  "In  what  wind  belt 
is  Canada?"  "Is  Canada  favorable  for  farming?"  "What  con- 
ditions favor  wheat-raising  in  Canada?"  "How  does  Canada 
rank  as  a  manufacturing  country?"  "How  does  Canada  aid 
England?" 

An  examination  of  these  questions  reveals  the  fact  that  they 
may  be  classified  as  fact  questions  and  problem  questions;  and 
again  they  may  be  divided  into  those  suggested  by  certain  type 
questions  of  the  teacher  and  others  original  with  the  pupil.  As 
illustrations  of  fact  questions  we  have  the  following:  "How  big  is 
Canada? "  "What  does  she  manufacture? "  " What  is  the  climate 
of  Canada?"  "What  do  they  do  in  these  cities?"  and  others. 
As  illustrations  of  problem  questions  we  have,  "Will  Canada's 
wealth  aid  England  in  the  war?"  "How  important  is  Canada  to 
England?"  As  illustrations  of  questions  previously  asked  by  the 
teacher  there  are  the  following:  "How  important  is  Canada  to 
England?"  (A  question  raised  in  connection  with  other  colonies 
of  Great  Britain.)  "In  what  wind  belt  is  Canada?"  "What  do 
people  of  Canada  do  to  make  a  living?"  "What  kind  of  soil  has 
Canada?"  "Is  Canada  favorable  for  farming?"  "How  does 
Canada  rank  as  a  manufacturing  country?"  The  question,  "Will 
her  wealth  aid  England  in  the  war?"  is  illustrative  of  a  question 
original  with  children  and  happens  to  be  the  only  one  given  by  chil- 
dren when  no  data  were  supplied. 

The  questions  which  the  children  asked  upon  the  basis  of  data 
given  were  decidedly  more  worth  while  from  the  adult  point  of  view 
than  those  for  which  they  had  to  appeal  to  their  knowledge  of  the 
country.  The  former  were  usually  problem  questions;  the  latter 
were  commonly  fact  questions.  This  is  not  at  all  surprising  when 
one  considers  that  ability  to  ask  good  questions  implies  well-or- 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  37 

ganized  knowledge,  in  the  absence  of  which  children  resorted  to 
certain  well-known  stock  questions  to  avoid  appearing  ignorant. 
The  questions  asked  upon  the  basis  of  data  were  very  similar  to 
those  which  an  adult  would  think  of  when  reading  the  same  para- 
graphs and  which  he  would  think  worth  while  solving.  There  are 
questions  such  as,  "  Why  is  Colorado  good  for  one's  health?  "  "  Why 
can  they  raise  so  many  cattle?"  and  "Why  do  the  Americans 
think  they  can  make  more  money  in  Canada  than  in  the  United 
States?"  which  seem  to  have  a  rather  practical  significance  in  adult 
life.  Again  there  are  such  questions  as,  "Why  does  it  rain  so  much 
more  in  Ohio  than  in  Colorado?"  "Why  does  Canada  want  to 
belong  to  England?"  etc.,  which  are  of  a  more  theoretical  nature 
but  which  because  of  our  geographical  and  historical  knowledge 
and  certain  interests  we  regard  of  sufficient  importance  to  think 
about  and  which  to  the  children  appeared  undoubtedly  very  prac- 
tical. Children  in  this  instance,  therefore,  indicated  problems  of  a 
possible  practical  significance  in  practically  every  instance  as  worth 
while  suggesting  for  solution.  Is  it  significant  that  the  only  prob- 
lem clearly  original  with  children  among  the  several  questions 
stated  on  Canada  without  data  was  a  practical  one? 

(d)  How  Do  Children's  Problems  Arise? 

Here  again  we  find  a  very  close  resemblance  between  children 
and  adults.  The  unusual  practice  of  always  putting  on  his  hat 
when  leaving  the  house  together  with  the  interest  in  making  him 
perform  suggested  to  the  little  boy  in  the  first  example  above  the 
desirability  of  making  the  grandfather  leave  the  house  without  it. 
A  physical  difficulty  arose  when  the  buttons  were  spilt,  giving  rise 
to  the  problem,  How  to  avoid  picking  them  up,  or,  How  to  get 
P.  to  pick  them  up.  Recognition  of  the  undesirability  of  the  task  in 
the  light  of  former  experiences  suggests  the  problem  in  the  latter  case. 

The  following  illustrations  are  taken  from  school  work  and  will 
show  -how  problems  here  arise,  spontaneously  —  as  in  the  first 
instance  —  and  how  they  may  be  made  to  arise  by  appropriate 
arrangement  of  data. 

"The  fifth  grade  children  were  reading  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  the  Missis- 
sippi by  Marquette  and  Joliet.  The  account  told  of  three  different  tribes  of  In- 
dians whom  they  encountered,  the  Wild  Rice  Indians,  of  the  Fox  river,  the  Illinois 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Chickasaws  on  the  Mississippi  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  All  these  Indians  were  friendly  to  the  explorers.  One 
boy  T.  remarked  that  he  didn't  see  why  all  these  Indians  were  friendly  to  the  white 


Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 


men  and  asked  for  information  on  this  point.  When  asked  what  suggested  the 
question  to  him  he  said,  "Well,  it  doesn't  seem  possible  that  they  could  meet  so 
many  Indians  and  have  them  all  friendly.  Boone  in  Kentucky  didn't  meet  any 
friendly  Indians.  He  was  always  having  to  fight  them."  3 

A  teacher  told  the  story  of  the  Northwind  to  a  group  of  second  grade  children 
up  to  the  point  where  the  Northwind  takes  the  meal  from  the  boy  three  times. 
The  boy  at  this  time  says,  "I  will  go  after  the  Northwind  and  make  him  give  me 
back  my  meal."  At  this  time  the  teacher  asked  the  children  what  they  wished 
to  know  most.  The  children  very  promptly  replied,  "Did  the  boy  get  his  meal 
back?"  and,  "How  did  he  get  it  back?"  4 

A  fifth  grade  was  asked  to  read  the  statement  concerning  Colorado 
given  below  and  to  state  (i)  What  problems  or  questions  this  ac- 
count suggested  that  would  be  of  interest  to  them;  (2)  what  other 
questions  or  problems  they  would  really  be  interested  in  finding 
out  about;  and  (3)  how  they  happened  to  think  of  these  questions. 

The  statement:  One  of  the  western  states  in  which  people  from  our  section 
have  been  greatly  interested  is  Colorado.  Many  have  gone  there  for  their  health; 
some  to  establish  cattle  ranches;  others  for  sight-seeing  and  play  during  the 
summer  months. 

Colorado  is  very  mountainous,  for  the  state  is  crossed  by  the  greatest  mountain 
range  of  North  America,  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  climate  is  much  drier 
than  in  Ohio;  for  while  Ohio  has  an  average  rainfall  of  about  forty  inches  Colorado's 
ranges  from  between  five  and  ten  inches  in  the  western  part  to  between  ten  and 
twenty  inches  for  most  of  the  remainder  of  the  state. 

In  spite  of  the  limited  rainfall,  however,  Colorado  produces  many  of  the  neces- 
sary foodstuffs  in  considerable  quantities. 

Thus  the  principal  crops  for  1899  and  1909  were  raised  in  the  following 
quantities: 

Product 

Total  orchard  fruits 
Apples 

Peaches  and  nectarines 
Plums  and  prunes 
Pears 
Sugar  beets 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Barley 

Beans,  peas,  flax  seed  and  cane  seed 

Hay  and  forage 

Cattle  of  all  kinds 

Feed  bought  by  farmers  (corn,  oats,  barley,  etc.)  in  1909  $4,593,000 

Feed  sold  by  farmers  (corn,  oats,  barley,  etc.)  in  1909  5,010,000 

3  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  Anna  J.  Beiswenger  for  this  account. 

4  Miss  McDill  reported  this  illustration  to  me. 


Quantity 

Amount  (1909) 

Value 

(only  1899) 

4,565,849  bu. 

$4,651,792 

354,049  bu. 

3,559,094 

3,405,442 

257,563 

692,000 

764,000 

47,000 

81,000 

81,000 

15,000 

132,000 

210,000 

19,000 

1,231,712   tons 

6,061,153 

6,656 

Acres  in  1909 

4,903,304  bu. 

2,573,584 

326,559 

7,642,000 

4,177,267 

276,000 

7,225,000 

6,463,000 

340,000 

1,889,000 

1,100,753 

71,500 

334,965 

549,000 

32,878 

2,241,000   tons 

17,282,000 

1,285,000 

1,158,235   heads 

32,409,653 

Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  39 

Some  of  the  questions  suggested  by  the  children  were  given  on 
page  35;  they  will  not  be  repeated  here.  Others  were:  "Why 
do  they  raise  so  many  apples  and  why  do  they  get  so  much 
money  for  them?"  "Why  do  farmers  buy  their  feed  when  they 
can  raise  it?"  "When  the  people  go  for  play  where  do  they  go?" 
"What  do  people  see  when  they  go  to  see?"  "How  long  does  it 
take  to  go  up  a  mountain  and  how  can  you  go?"  "How  does  it 
come  that  the  price  of  the  feed  sold  by  the  farmers  is  so  much  greater 
than  the  price  of  the  feed  bought  by  them?"  "Why  has  the  quan- 
tity of  fruits,  grain  and  vegetables  grown  so  since  1899?"  "How 
does  Colorado  raise  so  much  food  and  crops  when  there  are  so  many 
mountains?"  "Why  do  people  go  sight-seeing  to  Colorado  rather 
than  to  other  states?"  "Why  are  people  interested  in  Colorado?" 
"Can  they  raise  all  grains  and  fruits  and  vegetables  on  hilly  land?" 
"  Why  did  the  farmers  buy  feed?  "  "  How  can  cattle  live  with  hardly 
any  water?  "  "  What  does  Colorado  do  with  these  things?  "  "  Why 
did  the  farmers  sell  their  feed  and  then  buy  more?  " 

The  following  statement  regarding  Canada  was  placed  before  a 
seventh  grade  with  the  same  request  to  suggest  problems  which 
was  made  of  the  fifth  grade. 

"There  is  much  excellent  farming  land  in  Canada.  On  the  peninsula  between 
Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  and  Ontario,  is  some  of  the  best  land  in  Canada.  Just  beyond 
the  United  States  boundary  north  of  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  there  is  a 
strip  of  farming  land  several  hundred  miles  wide.  In  this  section  of  Canada  many 
Americans  have  settled  thinking  that  they  might  find  better  opportunities  for 
making  money  than  in  their  native  country.  Within  less  than  seventy-five  miles 
of  the  Minnesota  boundary  Winnipeg,  the  largest  city  of  Canada  west  of  Toronto, 
is  located.  It  now  has  a  population  of  about  150,000  and  is  a  close  rival  of  Min- 
neapolis in  some  respects." 

The  questions  which  the  children  formulated  were  stated  on  page 
36  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  life  of  the  child  as 
in  the  life  of  the  adult  problems  arise  when  the  individual's  experi- 
ence is  inadequate  to  meet  a  new  situation  which  the  individual 
feels  must  be  met,  or  when  the  different  elements  of  his  experience 
appear  to  be  contradictory  in  nature  and  so  block  the  way  to  the 
attainment  of  some  end  thought  desirable. 

(e)  How  Do  Children  Deal  with  Problems  When  They  Arise? 

A  little  girl  five  years  old  attempted  to  make  a  doll  dress.  She 
proceeded  at  once  to  cut  the  cloth,  sew  it  together,  and  then  to  put 


4O  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

it  on,  only  to  find  that  the  dress  was  too  small.  To  make  the  dress 
would  usually  be  looked  upon  as  a  fairly  difficult  problem  by  a  more 
experienced  person;  the  little  girl  seemed  to  have  no  appreciation 
of  its  difficulty.  There  were  no  previous  measurements,  no  planning 
of  the  style  of  the  dress;  the  whole  procedure  savored  much  of  the 
method  of  trial  and  error. 

In  case  of  the  problem  of  the  spilt  buttons  the  procedure  is  very 
different.  In  the  first  place  D.  appreciates  his  problem  very  keenly; 
it  means  very  much  to  him  to  escape  picking  up  those  buttons. 
In  the  second  place  he  quickly  advances  an  hypothesis,  namely, 
that  if  P.  could  be  kept  from  looking  out  of  the  window  until  she 
had  been  compelled  to  pick  up  the  buttons  she  would  probably  pick 
them  up  in  a  very  short  time.  Upon  this  hypothesis  he  acts. 
When  it  fails  he  modifies  his  procedure  and  attains  his  end.  There 
is  in  this  case  a  very  clear  conception  of  the  problem,  a  well-chosen 
plan  of  solving  it,  an  attempt  to  try  out  the  plan  and  to  modify 
it  sufficiently  to  attain  his  end.  Here  the  whole  procedure  is  very 
much  in  accord  with  what  an  adult  might  have  done  —  at  least  as 
to  form. 

A  third  illustration  is  given  because  of  the  light  it  throws  upon 
the  mode  of  procedure  in  the  solution  of  a  practical  problem  by 
boys  thirteen  and  ten  years  old. 

The  problem  in  this  instance  was,  How  to  build  a  boat  for  use  on  a  nearby 
creek.  The  first  question  arising  in  connection  with  the  building  of  the  boat 
was  how  to  get  plans  or  instructions.  Th.,  the  younger  boy,  recalled  having  seen 
the  plan  of  a  boat  in  a  magazine.  The  magazine  was  looked  up  and  the  plan  there 
suggested,  after  some  modification,  was  adopted.  The  next  problem  was,  How  to 
get  the  money  for  the  material.  Each  boy  had  some  money.  It  was  decided 
to  earn  the  remainder  necessary  by  mowing  lawns.  When  asked  why  this  kind 
of  work  was  chosen  one  of  the  boys  replied  that  this  was  the  only  way  open  —  prob- 
ably suggested  to  them  by  the  fact  that  other  boys  were  earning  money  in  this 
manner.  The  next  problem  which  arose  was,  What  kind  of  lumber  to  select. 
Here  the  advice  of  one  of  the  fathers  was  asked  and  accepted.  How  to  make 
the  boat,  was  the  next  problem.  Here  the  plan  was  frequently  referred  to  and 
assistance  was  sought  from  time  to  time  from  the  father  of  the  older  boy,  both 
in  the  matter  of  interpreting  the  plan  and  executing  some  of  the  more  difficult 
parts  of  it.  When  the  carpenter  work  on  the  boat  was  completed  it  was  decided 
that  it  must  also  be  painted.  The  treasury  was  low  at  this  time  and  economy 
necessary.  The  boys  therefore  decided  that  both  hardware  stores  should  be 
consulted  on  the  price  of  one  quart  of  paint  before  any  purchase  was  made.  In 
this  manner  five  cents  was  saved.  When  the  boat  was  completed  the  problem 
of  how  to  take  it  to  the  river  arose.  A  neighbor  offered  to  haul  it  down  but  his 
offer  was  not  accepted  because  it  was  thought  inadvisable  to  leave  the  boat  at 
the  river,  which  would  have  to  be  done  in  that  case.  One  of  the  parents  then 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  41 

suggested  that  a  two-wheeled  cart  might  be  made  or  purchased  for  the  purpose 
of  hauling  the  boat  to  and  fro.  The  cart  might  be  hitched  to  an  automobile  and 
the  labor  of  pulling  it  reduced  to  a  minimum.  A  search  for  a  cart  was  now  in- 
stituted and  a  very  acceptable  one  found  in  a  very  short  time.  When  the  owner 
stated  the  price  this  proposition  was  promptly  rejected.  Before  a  complete  plan 
for  the  care  of  the  boat  had  been  devised  the  fourth  of  July  was  at  hand  and  the 
parents  of  the  boys  had  decided  upon  a  picnic  at  the  river  to  celebrate  the  day. 
The  boys  therefore  decided  to  haul  the  boat  to  the  river  upon  two  coaster  wagons. 
While  at  the  river  the  question  arose  as  to  what  to  do  with  the  boat  for  the  night 
since  it  could  not  be  taken  back  very  conveniently  that  evening.  This  suggested 
the  plan  of  leaving  it  at  the  river  permanently  and  of  interesting  the  engineer  at 
the  pumping  station  in  caring  for  it.  It  was  thought  that  a  small  financial  re- 
muneration would  accomplish  this.  It  was  found,  however,  that  there  were  three 
engineers  at  the  pumping  station  during  every  twenty-four  hour  period  and  a 
financial  consideration  which  might  interest  one  would  hardly  interest  three. 
This  plan,  too,  was  discarded.  Since  it  had  become  dark  meanwhile  it  was  de- 
cided to  hide  the  boat  in  the  bushes  for  the  night.  The  following  morning  the 
boys  decided  to  fasten  it  near  the  pumping  station  with  chain  and  lock  and  leave 
it  there  permanently  if  this  method  proved  safe. 

In  the  solution  of  this  problem,  or  series  of  problems,  the  methods 
of  the  adult  are  suggested  at  every  step.  With  the  problem  before 
them  the  boys  advanced  their  suggestions  for  solution,  tried  them 
out  and,  rejecting  those  that  failed  in  some  way  to  meet  their  situa- 
tion, they  accepted  the  more  adequate.  They  appealed  to  their 
own  experience  when  devising  some  mode  of  raising  the  necessary 
money  for  the  purchase  of  the  materials  and  for  the  final  method 
of  carrying  the  boat  to  the  river.  When  experiences  of  their  own 
were  lacking,  as,  for  example,  in  the  choice  of  the  lumber,  the  plan- 
ning of  the  form  and  the  details  of  the  construction,  they  appealed 
to  their  parents  and  to  printed  plans.  During  the  entire  process 
there  was  also  a  very  definite  subordination  of  the  whims  of  the 
moment  to  the  most  satisfactory  outcome  —  the  construction  of  a 
well-built  boat.  In  one  respect,  however,  there  was  a  most  de- 
cided difference  between  the  procedure  of  the  boys  and  that  of  a 
rational  adult.  At  no  point  during  the  process  of  construction  did 
there  seem  to  be  any  tendency  to  consider  more  than  the  immediate 
next  step.  The  building  of  the  boat,  apparently  one  problem  to  the 
observer,  became  in  reality  a  series  of  problems  each  of  which  was 
considered  wholly  by  itself.  There  was  no  thought  of  paint  when 
lumber  was  purchased  and  consequent  disappointment  when  the 
cost  of  paint  was  found  to  be  so  great.  There  was  no  thought  of 
a  means  of  carrying  the  boat  to  the  river  when  completed,  or  of  a 
boathouse,  or  of  a  chain  with  which  to  fasten  it  until  the  need  for 


42  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

these  things  was  actually  present.  And  yet  this  is  exactly  what 
one  might  have  expected  from  boys  who  lacked  wholly,  or  almost 
wholly,  any  experience  in  boat  construction  and  the  care  of  boats. 
In  fact,  this  inability  to  foresee  in  full  the  various  minor  problems 
that  are  likely  to  arise  in  connection  with  the  solution  of  a  more 
comprehensive  one  is  not  at  all  uncommon  with  adults  and  varies 
inversely  as  the  individual's  experience  in  the  field  concerned.  It 
would  seem  then  that  there  is  a  close  resemblance  in  methods  of 
organization  of  school  age  in  out-of-school  activities  and  adults ; 
certainly  the  more  refined  methods  of  the  adult  are  foreshadowed 
in  the  methods  of  the  two  boys  of  the  last  illustration.  Does  this 
conclusion  seem  warranted  with  reference  to  the  organizing  activ- 
ities of  children  in  school  work? 

3.   How  CHILDREN  DEAL  WITH  PROBLEMS  IN  SCHOOL 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  secure  spontaneous  mental  reactions 
in  school  because  of  the  more  or  less  formal  nature  of  the  teaching 
process.  The  problem  very  often  is  not  as  vital  as  it  should  be; 
the  teacher's  method  of  procedure  is  such,  at  times,  that  it  inter- 
feres with  the  thought  processes  of  pupils.  For  this  reason  the 
illustrations  and  inferences  based  upon  them  are  probably  not  as 
instructive  or  conclusive  as  those  previously  given.  They  probably 
do  not  represent  the  children's  best  efforts,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
an  attempt  was  made  to  arrange  conditions  as  favorable  as  possible. 

The  problem  concerning  New  York  stated  below  was  raised  in 
class  discussion  with  a  group  of  children  belonging  to  the  fifth  grade. 
The  children  were  then  asked  to  work  out  an  answer  in  any  way 
they  thought  they  could  do  this  most  successfully.  As  was  to  be 
expected,  the  children  differed  greatly  in  method  of  work  and  in 
the  soundness  and  completeness  of  the  answers  which  they  suc- 
ceeded in  working  out.  The  immediate  problem  before  the  class  was, 
What  are  the  different  ways  by  which  people  can  make  a  living  in 
New  York  City  and  which  have  caused  so  many  people  to  go  there? 
Several  of  the  papers  and  the  teacher's  comments  are  given  in  full. 

Of  the  boy  who  wrote  the  first  paper  the  teacher  observed: 

"H.  found  the  page  where  the  subject  (New  York  City)  was  discussed,  but 
said  he  didn't  see  the  connection.  Later  he  turned  from  the  book  and  wrote  his 
own  ideas,  referring  to  the  book  later  only  to  corroborate  them."  1 

1  This  boy  attempted  to  write  on  the  more  comprehensive  problem  first  sug- 
gested by  the  class,  "Why  has  New  York  become  so  large  a  city." 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  43 

H.'s  paper  follows: 

"New  York  has  become  larger  because  of  the  Erie  canal.  They  could  bring 
things  from  the  wheat  region  and  they  could  build  flour  mills  and  elevators.  (2) 
New  York  City  became  large  because  she  has  great  packing  houses  for  she  can 
get  meat  to  dress  from  the  great  plains  by  water  or  by  rail.  It  would  be  by  rail 
to  Chicago  and  then  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  through  the  Erie  canal  to 
New  York.  (3)  New  York  City  has  grown  to  be  a  large  city  because  of  Colum- 
bia University.  For  people  would  come  to  go  to  college.  (4)  New  York  City 
has  become  large  because  of  the  good  harbor.  They  can  send  wheat  and  meat 
and  other  things  to  Europe  and  New  York  can  receive  goods  from  Europe.  (5) 
New  York  could  manufacture  iron  and  steel  goods,  for  she  could  get  iron  ore 
from  the  Superior  region  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  Buffalo  and  from  Buffalo 
to  New  York  by  way  of  the  Erie  Canal.  (6)  New  York  has  become  a  large  city 
because  she  manufactures  a  great  many  shoes,  for  she  has  a  great  many  tanneries 
where  they  can  tan  leather  out  of  hides  sent  from  Europe.  New  York  City  makes 
a  great  many  shoes  out  of  the  leather  that  is  tanned  in  the  city." 

Of  the  boy  writing  the  second  paper  the  teacher  says:  "T.  looked 
at  the  maps  showing  the  distribution  of  products."  His  answers 
seem  to  indicate  that  they  are  based  chiefly  upon  product  maps. 
The  paper  follows: 

"People  come  to  New  York  because  they  can  work  in  the  factories.  (2)  The 
factories  are  here  because  they  can  get  things  to  manufacture  by  way  of  the  har- 
bor and  big  railroads.  (3)  New  York  can  get  iron  ore  from  Duluth  by  way  of 
the  Hudson  river,  then  by  way  of  the  Erie  canal  to  Lake  Erie,  then  to  Duluth  by 
way  of  the  Great  Lakes.  (4)  New  York  can  get  meat  and  cattle  from  the  great 
plains.  It  is  first  shipped  to  Chicago  by  train,  then  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  Erie  canal  and  Hudson  river  to  New  York  where  the  cattle  are  killed  and 
dressed.  The  hides  are  made  into  shoes  and  other  leather  things.  (5)  New 
York  can  get  wheat  from  Minnesota  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Erie 
canal  and  Hudson  river.  In  New  York  it  can  be  made  into  flour  or  the  wheat 
can  be  shipped  to  Europe.  New  York  can  get  lumber  by  train  to  make  into 
boards." 

The  boy  who  wrote  the  third  paper  depended  upon  the  informa- 
tion which  he  could  glean  from  the  product  maps,  text,  and  refer- 
ence books.  "He  kept  looking  for  pages  where  he  had  seen  some- 
thing about  New  York."  The  paper  follows: 

"  (1)  New  York  has  grown  to  be  so  large  because  there  are  more  students  coming 
there  to  the  university  every  year.  (2)  There  are  people  coming  into  New  York 
for  work  because  there  is  plenty  of  work  to  do  and  men  need  work.  New  York 
can  get  coal  from  eastern  Pennsylvania,  iron  ore  from  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
and  limestone  from  Ohio  or  Indiana  and  they  need  men  to  run  the  machines  to 
make  the  iron  and  steel  goods.  And  she  has  a  good  harbor  to  send  the  things 
away.  (3)  The  people  come  to  New  York  to  get  work  at  manufacturing  iron 
and  steel  goods.  People  come  to  New  York  to  run  a  dairy  farm  to  help  furnish 
New  York  with  milk  and  cream." 


44       ,  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

The  teacher  of  the  children  summarizes  their  procedure  as  fol- 
lows: "The  children  consulted  their  geography  text-books  and  in 
four  or  five  instances  other  books.  They  consulted  product  maps 
and  physical  maps.  They  recalled  previous  geographical  experi- 
ence and  tried  to  make  application  (sometimes  wrongly).  They 
used  personal  experiences  from  life  outside  of  school.  In  some  cases 
they  thought  out  the  answer." 

In  this  grade  children  do  not  seem  to  be  conscious  of  the  fact 
that  their  suggestions  toward  the  solution  of  a  problem  are  merely 
suggestions.  At  times  they  put  them  in  phraseology  to  indicate 
that  they  do  realize  this,  as,  for  example,  H.'s  use  of  'could'  instead 
of  'do'  in  two  instances.  The  fact  that  H.  wrote  out  his  answers 
and  then  consulted  the  text  to  verify  his  statements  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  he  looked  upon  his  statements  as  being  assumptions 
which  needed  verification.  In  general, 'however,  children  of  this 
grade,  in  so  far  as  tested,  seem  inclined  to  offer  their  suggestions 
as  reasons  and  let  the  teacher  settle  the  matter.  Possibly  this  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  readiness  of  teachers  to  indicate  immedi- 
ately when  an  answer  has  been  stated  whether  it  is  right  or  wrong. 
The  pupil  is  thus  relieved  of  all  responsibility  in  the  matter. 

The  experiences  used  are  of  various  kinds.  There  are  first  cer- 
tain experiences  of  a  local  nature  which  played  a  part  in  the  answers 
of  the  children.  The  home  town  is  affected  very  much  by  the 
presence  of  a  university  and  two  colleges.  The  total  school 
population  increases  the  population  of  the  town  about  fifty  per  cent. 
Consequently,  the  children  felt  that  a  similar  situation  must  exist  in 
New  York  City  where  they  found  a  large  university  located.  Again 
the  children  used  their  geographical  knowledge  fairly  successfully. 
Up  to  this  time  in  their  course  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  formu- 
late definitely  the  conditions  essential  to  a  successful  manufacturing 
or  trade  center.  A  number  of  cities  had  been  studied,  however, 
in  which  concrete  illustrations  of  these  conditions  had  been  dis- 
cussed in  relation  to  the  cities'  industries.  The  children,  therefore, 
use  very  intelligently  such  concepts  as  "access  to  raw  materials," 
"good  transportation  facilities,"  etc.,  without  calling  them  by  their 
technical  terms.  The  number  of  data  used  is  disappointingly 
small;  this  was  to  be  expected  in  this  grade.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  children  consulted  the  text-book  and  reference  books  at  once 
and  were  satisfied  when  they  had  copied  what  to  them  seemed  sat- 
isfactory answers.  A  similar  procedure  was  observed  in  the  seventh 
grade  of  another  school  where  a  similar  test  was  given.  Children 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  45 

very  generally  ignored  their  experience  and  threw  themselves  help- 
lessly upon  the  text-book,  copying  answers  thought  suitable  but 
adding  nothing  from  their  previous  experience. 

Because  of  the  nature  of  the  problem  before  the  class  there  seemed 
little  opportunity  to  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  arrange  materials.5 

In  order  to  determine  what  children  would  do  with  a  problem 
under  the  direction  of  a  teacher,  the  same  fifth  grade  was  asked  to 
discuss  with  the  writer  one  of  the  problems  stated  by  the  children 
in  connection  with  the  paragraph  on  Colorado,  "Why  do  the  people 
of  Colorado  raise  so  much  grain  and  food?"  The  account  of  two 
lessons  was  prepared  by  a  stenographer ;  it  is  slightly  abridged  in 
places  but  on  the  whole  represents  the  procedure  fairly  accurately. 
As  far  as  possible  children  were  left  to  their  own  resources  in  the 
discussion,  the  teacher  making  a  suggestion  only  when  awkward 
pauses  occurred  and  the  children  seemed  unable  to  go  on.  No 
summaries  were  called  for. 

The  account  of  the  lessons.  "Why  do  the  people  of  Colorado  raise  so  much 
grain  and  food?  We  tried  yesterday  to  answer  this  question  but  did  not  suc- 
ceed very  well.  How  do  people  in  Colorado  manage  to  raise  so  much  grain,  corn, 
sugar  beets,  etc.,  when  it  is  so  dry  there?" 

Th.  Because  farmers  irrigate  their  fields.  Sometimes  they  have  pipes  with 
holes  in;  water  runs  through  drop  by  drop  to  the  ground.  They  also  dig  ditches 
and  water  runs  through  them.  (This  apparently  settled  the  matter  for  the  class.) 

T.   Do  you  wish  to  ask  Th.  how  you  get  the  water  into  the  pipes? 

C.  They  would  have  to  have  much  water  for  each  field. 

H.  How  do  you  get  all  over  the  field?  It  would  take  a  good  many  pipes  and 
a  lot  of  holes  to  let  the  water  out. 

T.   Th.,  did  you  ever  see  them  do  this? 

Th.  Down  south  last  summer.  They  also  flood  rice  fields  in  the  south.  Large 
fields  are  irrigated  by  use  of  ditches. 

T.  You  think  in  a  large  field  it  is  best  to  use  ditches? 

Th.   Yes. 

T.   How  would  you  get  enough  water? 

Ch.   They  might  have  a  creek  of  their  own  on  the  farm. 

C.   Every  one  would  not  have  a  creek. 

M.  They  have  reservoirs  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains;  snow  melts  and  runs 
down  into  the  reservoir  and  then  they  get  the  water  from  the  reservoir. 

T.   Does  that  sound  all  right? 

C.  How  would  they  get  enough  snow  for  water  in  the  reservoir? 

M.  This  water  comes  from  snow  caught  in  the  reservoir  in  the  spring.  The 
snow  melts  in  the  spring. 

5  The  children  interpreted  the  problem  to  mean  that  a  number  of  ways  of  mak- 
ing a  living  should  be  enumerated  and  explained.  They  do  not  as  yet  realize 
that  the  principles  which  they  use  in  each  case  are  comprehensive  enough  to  ex- 
plain the  problem  as  a  whole. 


46  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

C.   There  is  not  enough  snow  to  supply  reservoir  with  water. 
Ch.   How  would  the  melted  snow  get  into  the  reservoir? 

M.  The  snow  melts,  then  flows  down  the  mountain  sides  into  the  valleys 
between,  and  then  is  caught  in  the  reservoir. 

B.  We  don't  have  reservoirs  all  around  the  mountains.     If  they  have  a  creek 
near  they  use  that  instead  of  the  reservoir. 

Ch.   If  the  creek  is  some  distance  pipe  and  dig  ditches  to  the  farm. 
T.   Let  us  read  our  geographies  and  see  if  this  is  true.     (Children  read  that  M.'s 
statement  regarding  the  reservoir  is  correct.) 

C.  If  there  was  a  river  in  the  mountains  the  snow  might  melt  and  go  into  the 
river. 

T.  M.'s  statement  is  true,  therefore.  How  will  the  water  be  gotten  from  the 
reservoir  to  the  farms? 

B.  Dig  trenches  in  the  mountains.     Between  the  mountains  is  usually  a  valley; 
the  water  runs  down  into  the  valley  and  then  into  the  reservoir  at  the  foot  of  the 
valley. 

J.  There  is  always  a  river  in  the  valley.  Water  flows  into  the  river  and  then 
down  into  the  reservoir. 

T.   The  purpose  of  the  reservoir  then  is  to  hold  water  between  rains. 

C.  What  if  the  reservoir  got  empty? 

M.  There  is  snow  the  year  round  on  the  mountains;  there  would  always  be 
water. 

T.  Here  is  a  farm;  there  is  no  water  at  the  farm  but  there  is  plenty  three 
miles  away  at  the  reservoir.  How  shall  we  get  it  to  the  farm?  (At  suggestion  of 
T.,  children  now  pass  to  the  sand  table.  Here  mountains,  reservoir,  valley,  river  and 
farm  lands  are  represented  and  children  are  asked  where  they  would  prefer  to  have 
their  farm  located  if  they  had  one.  One  boy  suggests  that  he  would  have  a  farm  on 
both  banks  of  the  stream.) 

T.   If  farm  is  on  both  sides  of  the  creek  how  would  you  water  it? 

B.   Dig  ditches  on  either  side. 

T.  Water  runs  easiest  down  the  river  bed;  is  it  easy  to  get  water  onto  the 
farm?  Will  it  flow  up  the  sides  of  the  plain? 

Chn.  No.  We  can't  change  river.  To  send  water  up  hill  we  would  have  to 
force  it. 

T.   We  want  to  water  the  farm  on  both  sides  as  far  as  possible. 

B.    Cut  in  ditch,  let  water  flow  through  this  way  (pointing  toward  slope). 

Ch.   Object  on  account  of  slope.     Ditches  might  be  built  around  farm. 

T.  Think,  boys,  of  a  piece  of  ground  with  ditches  around  it;  what  would  be 
the  objection  to  watering  the  farm  this  way? 

B.  It  would  take  three  years  to  do  it;   they  would  be  digging  ditches  all  the 
time.    It  would  not  pay  a  farmer  to  do  this;  it  is  too  expensive.    It  would  cost 
more  than  the  ground  is  worth. 

T.   We  must  think  of  something  else,  then. 

C.  Use  pumps  and  force  the  water  up  to  certain  places  in  the  field  into  ditches; 
water  would  then  flow  from  ditches  between  rows  or  furrows. 

T.   What  objection  would  there  be  to  this  plan? 

Ch.   Too  expensive  to  pump  the  water. 

T.   The  question  is  how  to  get  the  water  onto  the  farm. 

C.   The  river  might  be  dammed  up  to  raise  the  water  high  enough. 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  47 

T.  How  high  would  your  dam  have  to  be  to  raise  the  water  high  enough  for 
farms  some  distance  from  the  dam? 

Children  see  that  farms  near  the  dam  would  be  flooded  while  others  would  have  barely 
enough  water.  Project  would  be  impractical  for  other  reasons. 

T.  This  then  will  not  work. 

Ch.  They  could  have  pipes  and  let  the  water  run  down  out  of  the  pipes.  Pipes 
might  run  to  wells  on  farms  and  they  might  fill  well  and  then  pump  it  up. 

T.  How  high  would  the  water  rise  in  the  well  if  brought  there  from  the  river 
near  by? 

Ch.  No  higher  than  the  river. 

T.  Would  this  be  satisfactory  then  for  irrigating? 

C.  No,  farmer  would  have  to  pump  water  out  of  well. 

T.  Well,  do  you  have  any  other  suggestions? 

Children,   (addressing  teacher)  What  do  you  say  about  it? 

B.  Pipe  water  onto  farm  at  high  edge,  along  to  farm  and  into  ditches. 
T.  This  is  exactly  what  is  done.     (Teacher  explains  more  fully.) 

H.  What  about  other  people's  water  from  the  river? 

T.  How  will  people  over  here  —  farther  down  the  valley —  get  water? 

C.  Shut  the  gates  and  let  it  go  to  the  next  field.    They  could  make  places  to 
shut  the  water  off.     Gates  could  be  closed  and  opened;  close  some  gates  and  open 
others. 

T.  How  could  water  be  admitted  to  each  farm? 

B.  One  gate  to  large  ditch.    There  is  plenty  of  water  for  all  farmers. 

H.  First  farm  has  a  sluice  made  with  one  opening;  opening  this  it  admits 
water  to  the  farm,  to  furrows  between  vegetables.  When  he  has  all  the  water 
he  needs  he  closes  the  water  gates. 

Chn.  Water  would  not  run  high  enough  to  let  it  run  over.  Let  it  run  in  here 
(shows  in  sand).  He  could  fix  it  to  lower  and  bring  gate  up  when  he  wants  to. 

T.   Did  you  ever  see  such  a  gate? 

Ch.  Yes,  at  mill;  it  runs  mill  and  the  miller  shuts  it  off  when  he  wants  to. 
Have  the  ditch  deep  to  raise  and  lower  the  gate. 

T.  Now  do  you  have  any  questions?  (No  questions)  Farm  lands  on  this,  side 
are  $40  and  $50  an  acre;  over  here  in  the  unirrigated  parts  land  is  worth  $6  an 
acre  because  people  cannot  get  water.  Where  then  should  the  main  ditch  be  placed? 

B.  We  want  the  ditch  on  the  highest  part  so  that  water  can  run  down  into  the 
fields. 

T.   We  want  every  farmer  to  get  as  much  water  as  he  is  entitled  to. 

C.  If  you  could  raise  and  lower  your  gate  what  difference  would  that  make? 
B.  Have  enough  water  for  field  and  then  shut  it  off. 

Chn.  Object.  One  farm  might  have  all  the  water  it  needs  and  the  farms  below 
might  not  get  their  share. 

T.  How  could  this  be  controlled? 

B.  Measure  water. 

(Teacher  then  explains  the  manner  of  controlling  water  rights.) 

In  this  oral  discussion  children  appear  more  careful  in  advan- 
cing suggestions.  Influenced  probably  by  the  teacher's  attitude  as 
well  as  by  the  criticisms  of  contributions  by  their  classmates  they 
appear  quite  cautious.  Judging  by  the  wording  of  their  contribu- 


48  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

tions  to  the  discussion  there  are  many  hypotheses  quite  definitely 
suggested  as  such  as  there  are  statements  which  evidently  should 
have  been  given  as  hypotheses,  but  which  were  stated  in  the  form 
of  facts  instead.  Possibly  in  some  of  the  latter  cases  the  difficulty 
is  one  of  language  rather  than  of  thinking.  (2)  Children  do  not 
try  out  the  suggestions  made  in  any  thorough  manner  —  not  at  all 
in  some  cases.  Thus  they  were  perfectly  willing  to  accept  the  first 
statement  of  Th.  as  final.  Digging  ditches  from  the  river  to  the 
farms  located  on  higher  ground,  watering  farms  by  means  of  a  dam, 
watering  them  by  means  of  wells,  etc.,  would  have  passed  as  accept- 
able to  them  with  the  sand  table  before  them.  Lack  of  experience 
in  this  direction  is  of  course  one  reason  for  this  lack  of  thorough- 
ness in  their  thinking.  (3)  The  hypotheses  advanced  are  but  limited 
in  scope.  A  principle  thoroughly  well  known  to  each  one  of  the 
children  both  from  out-of-school  experience  and  from  school  train- 
ing, that  water  without  the  application  of  force  will  move  only 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level,  was  never  thought  of,  apparently, 
as  explaining  the  entire  problem  before  the  class.  While  it  served 
to  check  the  suggestions  made  from  time  to  time  it  did  not  control 
the  thinking  of  the  children  to  any  considerable  extent.  (4)  The 
nature  of  the  experience  offered  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  is 
usually  concrete.  Irrigation  is  suggested  by  Th.  because  he  has 
seen  gardens  irrigated  in  the  South.  The  experience  with  the  rice 
field  is  of  the  same  type.  Experiences  with  creeks  and  ditches  again 
seem  to  be  advanced  because  of  specific  instances  which  children 
have  come  across,  of  creeks  running  through  the  land  and  watering, 
not  lands,  but  cattle.  Only  one  child  resorts  to  text-book  for  in- 
formation. No  principle  is  suggested  by  the  children  in  their  work 
upon  this  problem.  (5)  The  way  to.  the  final  solution  is  extremely 
roundabout. 

The  seventh-grade  children  who  suggested  the  problems  on  Can- 
ada cited  on  page  35  of  this  chapter  were  requested  to  select 
any  one  of  the  problems  and  attempt  to  work  out  its  answer,  first 
without  aid  of  any  kind,  and  later  with  the  assistance  of  text-book, 
reference  books,  or  teacher,  as  they  saw  fit.  Two  of  the  papers 
written  —  both  without  assistance  of  any  kind  —  are  given  below. 

D.'s  paper: 

"Why  has  Winnipeg  grown  so  rapidly?  I  think  Winnipeg  might  grow  rapidly 
because  she  is  in  a  good  situation.  She  might  be  on  a  good  river  where  trans- 
portation is  good.  There  might  be  minerals  found  around  there,  such  as  coal 
and  iron  which  could  be  manufactured  there.  There  might  be  good  farming  land 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  49 

near  Winnipeg  as  there  is  in  the  section  around  her.  Winnipeg  might  be  an  easy 
city  to  reach  if  people  from  other  countries  are  coming  over.  It  is  perhaps  a  beau- 
tiful city  and  people  would  come  over  for  rest  and  scenery  and  get  to  liking  it 
and  stay.  It  might  be  the  capital  of  Canada." 

The  part  of  paper  written  with  the  aid  of  book  : 

"Winnipeg  is  on  a  branch  of  the  Albany  river  where  she  has  good  transportation. 
It  is  the  most  important  farming  region  in  the  dominion.  Tarr  and  McM.  162. 
Winnipeg  is  in  the  midst  of  the  wheat  region.  Flour  is  manufactured  there." 

R.'s  paper: 

"Why  are  the  people  of  the  United  States  going  to  Canada  to  farm  when 
the  soil  of  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  is  so  well  suited  to  wheat?  The 
people  who  live  in  the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of  the  United  States  do  not 
get  the  chance  to  farm.  The  land  in  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  is  fertile  and 
very  good  for  wheat  raising  but  it  is  also  very  high  priced. 

"The  land  in  Canada  is  not  nearly  so  well  settled  as  that  of  Minnesota  and  North 
Dakota.  This  makes  the  land  sell  much  cheaper  and  still  it  is  a  very  good  land  for 
farming.  So  the  people  of  the  United  States  prefer  to  buy  the  land  in  Canada 
for  farming  to  that  of  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota." 

There  seems  to  be  in  both  cases  a  rather  clear  conception  of  the 
problems  to  be  worked  out.  The  first  part  of  D.'s  paper  is  a  series 
of  hypotheses  based  upon  certain  principles  which  have  been  fre- 
quently applied  in  connection  with  the  study  of  other  cities.  These 
principles  are  named  in  some  cases,  as,  for  example,  "situation,'* 
"  transportation ";  in  other  cases  they  are  implied,  as,  "  there 
might  be  minerals  found  around  there"  evidently  has  at  its  basis 
"access  to  raw  materials."  There  seems  to  be  a  definite  attempt 
to  use  experience  of  a  conceptual  nature.  There  is  also  a  fair  se- 
quence of  hypotheses;  location,  transportation  facilities,  natural 
resources,  and  artificial  attractions  are  suggested  in  order.  In 
the  second  part  of  the  paper  it  appears  that  an  attempt  is  made 
to  establish  the  hypotheses  of  location,  transportation  facilities  and 
natural  resources. 

In  the  second  paper  no  hypothesis  is  definitely  stated.  R.  as- 
sumes, however,  that  "good  land  probably  can  be  bought  at  a  lower 
price,"  and  bases  his  argument  on  this  idea.  While  he  assumes 
the  principle,  "Value  of  land  increases  with  the  increase  of  popu- 
lation," and  uses  it  in  his  reasoning,  he  does  not  state  it  as  such. 
A  conclusion  is  definitely  arrived  at  and  stated.  The  facts  essen- 
tial to  the  reasoning  are  well  selected  and  the  sequence  is  good. 
There  is,  however,  no  attempt  at  verification. 

The  two  papers  reproduced  are  representative  of  the  papers  of 


50  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

the  class  as  a  whole;  they  are  better  than  a  number  of  others  in 
that  the  first  paper  states  hypotheses  as  such  more  clearly  than 
some,  and  the  reasoning  of  the  second  paper  is  more  explicit  than 
in  many  of  the  others. 


4.   CONCLUSIONS 

1.  In  the  lives  of  children,  as  in  adult  life,  conscious  organiza- 
tion plays  an  important  part  in  the  attainment  of  certain  ends. 
This  is  true  even  for  the  latter  part  of  the  pre-school  period. 

2.  Children  organize  to  attain  ends  felt  to  be  worth  while. 

3.  Problems  which  impel  organization  in  out-of-school  life  are 
practical  in  their  nature;   in  school  they  are  probably  as  closely 
related  to  practical  life  as  the  subject  matter  will  permit. 

4.  In  the  organization  of  experience  children  proceed  in  a  manner 
quite  similar  to  that  of  adults.      For 

(a)  Children  limited  in  experience  and  ignorant  of  method 
copy  closely  the  procedure  of  an  ignorant,  untrained  adult. 
There  is  but  a  dim  appreciation  of  the  problem,  no  tenta- 
tive, attitude  toward  plans  of  solution.  Accomplishing  the 
end  seems  largely  a  matter  of  trial  and  error,  in  so  far  as 
there  is  success. 

(&)  With  more  experience  children  begin  to  recognize  more 
definitely  the  problematic  elements  in  a  situation  and 
suggest  plans  of  solution  as  such,  trying  them  out  and  ac- 
cepting such  as  meet  their  situation  while  rejecting  those 
that  do  not. 

(c)  Hypotheses  advanced  are  limited  in  scope  due  to  the  lack 

of  any  comprehensive  system  of  knowledge  on  part  of 
children.  A  comprehensive  problem  may  break  up  into 
a  series  of  minor  ones,  each  of  which  may  be  solved  inde- 
pendently of  the  rest. 

(d)  Hypotheses  are  commonly  stated  as  reasons  in  school,  es- 

pecially in  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  teacher's 
interference,  the  pupil  does  not  have  the  same  opportunity 
of  trying  out  his  suggestions  as  in  out-of-school  life.  This 
may  also  be  due  to  the  fact  that  children  are  not  confronted 
with  "problems  of  action";  the  means  of  trying  out  sugges- 
tions are  not  at  hand. 


Organization  as  a  Factor  in  Child  Life  51 

(e)  Facts  used  in  problem  solution  are  likely  to  be  of  the  concrete, 

specific  type  in  the  lower  grades  and  even  in  the  upper 
grades;  in  fact,  wherever  experiences  in  a  given  direction 
are  limited  in  number.  In  branches  in  which  the  devel- 
opment of  concepts  has  been  the  definite  aim  for  several 
years,  as  in  the  case  of  geography  for  example,  children 
use  such  concepts  readily  in  the  grammar  grades. 

(f)  The  number  of  facts  which  children  use  in  the  solution,  of  a 

problem  is  likely  to  be  limited.  Children  seem  to  lack 
experiences  in  sufficient  number  and  do  not  appreciate 
the  importance  of  an  abundance  of  facts  in  the  solution  of 
a  problem. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

PRESENT  PRACTICE  IN  CURRICULUM-MAKING  AS 
TO  ORGANIZATION  WITH  RECOMMENDATIONS  OF 
STANDARDS 

The  Importance  of  Organization  as  an  End  in  the  Teaching  Process  and 
Its  Implication  for  the  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials. 

IT  is  evident  from  the  preceding  discussion  that  organization  of 
knowledge  is  the  important  means  for  the  control  of  both  old  and 
new  experiences.  Organization  of  the  facts  within  one's  experience 
indicates  that  the  relationships  obtaining  among  them  have  been 
clearly  recognized  and  possibly  expressed;  that  in  this  manner 
clearness  of  meaning  has  been  brought  about;  that  the  various 
elements  in  the  unit  of  organization  are  seen  in  proper  perspective; 
that  greater  simplicity  is  attained;  that  the  several  elements, 
individually  and  jointly,  have  greater  force;  and  that  conduct  is 
likely  to  be  more  efficient  because  it  has  a  rational  basis.  Organiza- 
tion must  therefore  be  an  important  end  in  the  teaching  process. 
This  has  been  pointed  out  by  Wei  ton  when  he  says  that  "the  aim 
of  teaching  is  not  to  impart  facts  but  to  develop  systems:  facts 
are  only  of  value  in  so  far  as  they  are  starting  points  for  such  de- 
velopment." l  And  by  Creighton  when  he  says  that  "in  order  to 
pass  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  intellectual  point  of  view,  —  to  be- 
come better, educated,  in  a  word,  — it  is  necessary  to  see  the  way 
in  which  the  various  pieces  of  our  knowledge  are  connected  and 
dependent  upon  one  another." 2  Professor  Dewey  laments  the 
absence  of  proper  organization  of  materials  from  lessons  and  says 
that  "only  when  relationships  are  held  in  view  does  learning  be- 
come more  than  a  miscellaneous  scrapbag."  3  Not  that  organiza- 
tion of  facts  is  an  end  in  itself  but  rather  a  tool  "in  the  creation 
and  development  of  new  experiences." 

Now  if  organization  of   knowledge  constitutes   so   important  an 
end  in  education  it  is  evident  that  the  school  must  take  cognizance 

1  Logical  Bases  of  Education,  p.  119.  2  Introductory  Logic,  p.  320. 

3  How  We  Think,  p.  97. 

52 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  53 

of  this  fact  and  so  arrange  its  method  of  procedure  that  this  end 
can  be  accomplished.  The  controlling  principles  for  this  purpose 
were  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters.  It  was  there  pointed  out 
that  children  as  well  as  adults  organize  under  stress  and  guidance 
of  a  purpose  or  problem  of  vital  import  to  them.  The  children 
themselves  do  the  organizing  by  advancing  tentative  solutions,  or 
hypotheses,  which  are  tried  out  in  the  light  of  data  available  for 
that  purpose,  and  by  the  arrangement  of  those  relevant  so  as  to 
indicate  whether  the  proposed  solution  is  the  right  one  or  not. 
Progress  in  the  child's  education  is  synonymous  with  a  continuous 
reorganization  of  experience  under  stress  of  increasingly  compre- 
hensive vital  problems.  The  school  must  therefore  give  the  child 
an  opportunity  to  organize,  to  think  through  problems  which  are 
vital  to  him,  and  to  select  and  arrange  materials  so  that  the  resulting 
solution,  and  the  organization  necessary  to  the  end,  will  be  his  own. 
How  shall  this  be  accomplished?  Evidently  before  the  pupil  can 
formulate  the  problem  the  teacher  must  very  often  have  formu- 
lated it  in  her  own  mind  and  must  have  thought  of  the  conditions 
which  might  make  it  arise.  Before  the  pupil  can  chose  the  facts 
essential  to  its  solution  the  teacher  must  have  made  them  avail- 
able to  him :  and  before  the  pupil  can  arrange  them  so  as  to  indicate 
the  solution  sought,  the  teacher  must  have  foreseen  the  conclusion 
and  must  guide  the  pupil  to  reach  this  end.  This  work,  which  the 
teacher  must  do  to  enable  the  child  to  organize  successfully,  is  the 
teacher's  organization  of  instruction  materials  with  reference  to 
the  needs  of  the  pupil. 

Organization  of  instruction  materials  with  this  end  in  view  be- 
comes increasingly  significant  the  more  we  look  upon  the  child's 
needs  as  the  important  factor  in  the  educative  process.  And  yet 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  it.  At  present  very  commonly 
children  are  admonished  to  think,  but  because  no  provision  has  been 
made  for  a  situation  in  which  thought  appears  essential  and  or- 
ganization imperative  to  the  child  no  thinking  takes  place.  The 
organization  which  results  is  therefore  that  of  the  text-book  or 
teacher  and  the  pupil's  method  is  memorization,  or,  at  best,  an 
attempt  to  understand  sufficiently  well  for  recitation  purposes 
what  text-book  or  teacher  mean.  The  teacher  of  course  is  at  fault 
when  she  follows  such  a  procedure.  But  more  blameworthy  is 
the  supervisor  who  frames  the  course  of  study  which  offers  no 
assistance  in  the  organization  of  instruction  materials  for  teaching 
purposes.  The  teacher  confronted  with  a  task  which  is  frequently 


54  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

beyond  her  ability  necessarily  continues  as  she  has  previously  done 
until  supervisors,  through  courses  of  study,  come  to  her  assistance. 

The  problem  to  be  discussed  in  the  present  chapter  is,  How  should 
courses  of  study  be  constructed  so  as  to  be  of  the  greatest  assistance 
to  teachers  in  their  attempts  to  make  instruction  materials  mean- 
ingful, to  secure  clearness,  perspective,  organization  of  knowledge 
by  pupils?  Before  proceeding  with  the  discussion  of  that  problem, 
however,  it  may  be  profitable  to  inquire  to  what  extent  present 
courses  of  study  make  provision  for  organization  of  knowledge  by 
pupils. 

The  Extent  to  which  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials  for  Teaching 
is  Regarded  as  a  Problem  in  Course  of  Study-Making. 

Twelve  representative  schools  and  school  systems  were  requested 
to  send  to  the  writer, their  courses  of  study  and  syllabi  in  subjects 
in  which  there  were  any.  In  this  list  there  were  two  state  systems, 
nine  city  systems,  and  one  school  of  observation  in  a  teachers' 
college.  That  the  importance  of  organized  knowledge  is  recognized 
as  an  end  in  education  in  some  systems  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  they  make  specific  reference  to  it.  Thus,  one  course  states 
that  "too  much  time  is  wasted  on  isolated  facts  and  non-essentials. 
The  knowledge  of  the  children  is  not  organized."  And  again, 
"Details  in  the  elementary  study  of  history  should  be  recognized 
only  in  so  far  as  they  contribute  to  larger  conceptions  of  noble 
conduct,  courageous  deeds,  and  personal  achievement,  and  give 
insight  into  motives  and  qualities  of  character  that  should  be  uni- 
versalized, and  make  clear  the  principle  upon  which  the  everyday 
life  of  the  world  is  conducted."  .  .  .  "All  geographic  and  historic 
material  is  to  be  more  carefully  organized,  generalized  and  co- 
ordinated into  relations  of  cause  and  effect."  4  .  .  .  "Only  the  great 
movements  in  our  nation's  history  should  be  emphasized  while 
the  ten  thousand  isolated  facts  and  unimportant  details  should  be 
ignored."  5  Another  course  commenting  upon  the  failure  of  pupils 
to  profit  from  the  study  of  history  attributes  as  the  cause  the  habit 
of  memorizing  the  text-book,  and  makes  the  following  suggestion: 
"This  practice  is  unprofitable  because  it  calls  for  no  one  of  the 
three  disciplinary  processes,  —  selection  of  pertinent,  and  exclu- 
sion of  non-pertinent  facts;  reflection  upon  facts,  and  organiza- 
tion of  facts  by  the  pupil  himself.6  A  third  course  mentions  the 

4  System  No.  4,  pp.  46-47.  6  Ibid.,  p.  67. 

6  System  No.  1,  History  Syllabus,  p.  28. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  55 

desirability  of  organization  in  the  following  terms:  "In  the  more 
advanced  grades,  pupils  should  be  led  to  the  classification  of  geo- 
graphical facts.  The  child  begins  geography  with  details,  but  as 
his  knowledge  increases  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  lead  it  to  group 
these  details  into  classes  or  systems  of  facts.7  A  fourth  course 
explaining  the  purpose  of  problems  in  teaching  geography  states 
that  "It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  purpose  is  not  to  make 
final  judgments  or  settle  great  questions,  but  simply  to  give  purpose 
and  coherence  to  a  series  of  lessons."  8  A  fifth  course  actually 
attempts  some  organization  of  topics,  as  will  be  shown  later.  It 
seems  therefore  that  the  importance  of  organization  of  facts  as  an 
end  in  teaching  is  recognized  in  some  school  systems  at  least. 

How  do  present  courses  of  study  aid  the  teacher  in  attaining 
organization  of  facts  on  part  of  pupils? 

Probably  the  most  effective  way  to  show  what  is  done,  as  well 
as  what  is  not  done,  will  be  to  give  some  illustrations  from  the 
courses  examined.  All  of  them  have  been  taken  from  the  geography 
of  Europe;  the  same  country  would  have  been  selected  in  each 
case,  but  the  several  courses  take  different  countries  as  types, 
working  out  their  treatment  in  some  detail,  and  leave  others  to  be 
worked  out  by  the  teacher. 

The  first  illustration  is  the  geography  of  Great  Britain  from 
System  No.  4.  It  is  here  given  in  full  as  is  also  done  in  each  of  the 
other  illustrations. 

Geography  (using  any  text)  —  Teach  in  detail  Great  Britain. 

The  next  illustration  is  taken  from  System  i. 

BRITISH  ISLES 
1.  POSITION. 

(a)  Hemisphere. 

(&)  Latitude    and   longitude. 

(Extent  found,  not  memorized.) 
(c}  Zone. 

(d}  Direction  from  home  and  other  grand  divisions. 
(e)  Surrounding  waters. 

Note.  —  The  following  topics  in  position  apply  only  to  British  Isles. 
(/)  Central  position  in  reference  to  the  land  masses  of  world. 
(g)  Insular.     (Position.) 
(1)  Many  colonies. 

Name  and  location  of  most  important  colonies. 
Note.  —  Correlate  as  much  as  possible  with  child's  knowledge  of 
history  in  regard  to  exploration  and  colonization. 

7  System  No.  3,  Geography,  p.  7.         8  System  No.  8,  Geography,  p.  28. 


56  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

(2)  Large  navy. 

Note.  —  Show  reasons  for  development  of  large  navy  in  connec- 
tion with  the  acquisition,  maintenance,  protection  of,  and  trade 
with,  colonies. 

(3)  Greatest  foreign  trade. 

2.  SIZE. 

(a)  Of  British  Isles.    Compare  with  some  state  of  United  States. 

(ft)  Of  England. 

(c)  Of  British  Empire  (one-fifth  of  land  surface  of  world). 

Note.  —  Distinguish  British  Empire,  British  Isles,  Great  Britain,  and 
England. 

3.  SHORE  LINE. 

(a)  Character, 
(ft)  Adaptability. 

Note.  —  Show  commercial  advantages  to  England  in  the  fact  that 

many  of  her  excellent  harbors  are  opposite  each  other. 
(c)   Groups  of  islands. 

4.  RELIEF. 

(a)  Of  Scotland. 

(1)  Highlands. 

(2)  Lowlands. 

(3)  Scenery. 

(ft)  Of  England  and  Wales. 

(1)  Highlands. 

(2)  Lowlands. 

Note.  —  Mention  the  downs  and  the  moors. 

(3)  Scenery. 

Note,  -r-  Noted  landscape  gardens  and  country  districts. 
(c)   Of  Ireland. 

(1)  Highlands. 

(2)  Lowlands. 

Note.  —  Study  fertile  plains  and  bogs. 

(3)  Scenery. 
Vale  of  Avoca. 
Giant's  Causeway. 

5.  CLIMATE. 

(a)  Causes  inferred  from  — 

(1)  Latitude. 

(2)  Elevation. 

(3)  Mountains. 

(4)  Winds. 

(5)  Rainfall. 

(6)  Ocean  currents  or  drifts, 
(ft)  Healthfulness. 

(c)  Peculiarities. 

Note.  —  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  these  climatic  conditions 
result  in  mild  winters,  cool  summers,  and  almost  constant 
rainfall. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  57 

.    DRAINAGE. 
(a)  Rivers. 

(1)  Source. 

(2)  Course. 

(3)  Mouth. 

(4)  Navigation. 

Note.  —  Call  attention  to  the  small  swift  flowing  rivers  and  their 
industrial  importance;  study  large  rivers,  as  Thames,  and 
Mersey,  whose  wide  estuaries  extend  far  inland  making  ocean 
commerce  possible  for  cities  in  the  interior. 

7.  IMPORTANT  CITIES. 

(a)  Of  Scotland. 

(1)  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen. 

(2)  Location. 

(3)  Important  facts. 
(6)  Of  England. 

(1)  Name. 

London,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  Bradford, 
Sheffield,  Hull,  Newcastle,  Bristol,  and  Southampton. 

(2)  Location. 

(3)  Interesting  facts. 

(c)  Of  Wales. 

(1)  Names. 
Cardiff,  Merthyr. 

(2)  Location. 

(3)  Interesting  facts. 

(d)  Of  Ireland. 

(1)  Name. 

Dublin,  Belfast,  Cork,  Queenstown,  Armagh,  Limerick,  Lon- 
donderry. 

(2)  Location. 

(3)  Interesting  facts. 

8.  PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES. 

(a)  Products  (of  British  Isles). 

(1)  Agricultural. 

(2)  Mineral. 

(3)  Animal. 

(4)  Miscellaneous. 

(5)  Manufactured. 

(a)  Of  Scotland. 

(6)  Of  England. 

(c)  Of  Ireland. 

(b)  Industries. 

(1)  Of  Scotland. 

Note.  —  In  connection  with  study  of  industries,  call  attention  to 
the  hand  weaving  of  the  people  of  the  Hebrides.  Correlate 
with  the  study  of  textiles  in  the  manual  training  work. 


58  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

(2)  Of  England  and  Wales. 

Note.  —  In  connection  with  study  of  industries  call  attention  to 
the  market  gardening. 

(3)  Of  Ireland. 

Note.  —  In  connection  with  study  of  industries  note  the  making 
of  lace  by  hand,  and  the  manufacture  of  fine  linens. 

9.  COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE. 

(a)  Comparison  with  the  United  States. 
(6)  Trade. 

(1)  Exports  (manufactured  articles). 

(2)  Imports  (foodstuffs,  raw  materials). 

(3)  Routes. 

(c)  Reasons  for  development. 

10.  PEOPLE. 

(a)  Race. 

(b)  Nationality. 

English,  Irish,  Scotch,  Welsh. 

(c)  Characteristics. 

(d)  Religion. 

(e)  Government. 

For  the  other  five  great  powers  of  Europe  use  similar  topics,  and  for  the  remain- 
ing countries  select  topics  needed. 

The  following  illustration  is  taken  from  System  No.  8. 

THE  THREE  MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  GIANTS:  ENGLAND,  GERMANY 
AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Their  common  watchword:  International  trade;   imperial  power;   high  degree 
of  civilization  and  culture. 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 
OUTLINE 

1.  Location  and  climate  of  mother  country. 

2.  Physical  features  and  natural  advantages. 

3.  Industries. 

4.  Cities. 

5.  Colonies — Canada,  India,  Australia,  South  Africa,  British  Guiana.    Loca- 

tion.   How  controlled  by  England.    Advantages  to  both  mother  country 
and  colonies  from  their  mutual  relations. 

6.  Commercial  fleet. 

7.  Rivals. 

8.  Army  and  navy. 

9.  Future  problems :  Railways,  telegraphs,  steamship  lines.    Education  of  people 

toward  the  responsibility  of  an  ever- widening  government.    Relief  of  poor 
and  needy  by  education  and  better  training  in  useful  occupations. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  59 

BRITISH  EMPIRE 
SUGGESTIVE  QUESTIONS 

1.  The  location  of  the  British  Isles  has  provided  rare  opportunity  for  the  devel- 

opment of  the  nation.    If  you  recognize  any  restrictions  discuss  them.    What 

are  •some  of  the  opportunities,  or  aids,  to  this  development? 

(a)  Freedom  of  invasion. 

(6)  Nearness  or  proximity  to  important  markets. 

(c)  Long  hours  of  daylight. 

(d)  Climate  protected  from  Arctic  current. 

(e)  Cheap  transportation  which  the  sea  affords. 
(/)  Broken  coast  line;  excellent  harbors. 

2.  Give  a  reason  or  reasons  why  England,  which  was  once  an  agricultural  country, 

has  become  the  greatest  manufacturing  and  commercial  nation  of  the  world. 
(Resources  of  iron  and  coal;  climate;  fine  harbors;  numerous  rivers,  and 
its  proximity  to  the  sea.) 

3.  What  is  Great  Britain's  chief  ambition?    (To  remain  the  greatest  commercial 

nation  in  the  world.) 

What  does  the  Englishman  mean  by  saying:    "The  sun  never  sets  on  the 
English  flag"? 

4.  How  does  the  United  States  play  an  important  part  in  the  great  cotton  manu- 

facturing center  of  Great  Britain?  How  does  this  center  benefit  the  United 
States  as  well  as  itself? 

5.  Practically  all  of  Europe  lies  north  of  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia,  Indianapolis 

and  Denver,  and  its  climate  as  a  whole  is  much  more  moderate  than  that 
of  North  America  in  corresponding  latitude.  What  causes  this  marked 
difference?  What  are  the  results  upon  agriculture? 

6.  Compare  the  population  of  Great  Britain  with  that  of  the  United  States  as  to 

the  square  mile.  Material  to  feed  and  clothe  this  dense  population  is  not 
raised  in  sufficient  quantities  in  Breat  Gritain.  In  what  way  are  the  United 
States  of  great  value  to  Great  Britain  in  solving  this  question? 

7.  During  recent  years  less  grain  has  been  raised  in  Great  Britain  than  formerly 

and  market  gardening  has  increased.  Discuss  this  question,  giving  reasons 
for  the  change. 

8.  Discuss  the  difference  between  the  farmer  and  his  relation  to  the  land  in  Great 

Britain  and  that  of  the  farmer  in  the  United  States.  Why  has  Ireland  suf- 
fered from  this  system? 

9-^Compare  the  western  coast  of  Great  Britain  as  a  whole  with  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  and  state  what  effect  the  coast  of  each 
has  upon  the  commerce  of  that  country. 

10.  Great  Britain  is  a  great  colonizer  and  the  comparatively  few  millions  of  people 

in  the  British  Isles  rule  today  over  millions  of  square  miles  of  territory  and 
hundreds  of  millions  of  people.  Compare  this  spirit  of  colonization  with 
that  of  the  United  States. 

11.  Compare  inland  navigation  of  Great  Britain  with  that  of  the  United  States. 

Which  country  has  nature  assisted  more  in  this  direction?  In  what  way 
is  man  improving  conditions  in  this  respect? 

12.  Why  do  we  find  stock  raising  in  Great  Britain  where  we  do?    From  what 


60  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

country  does  it  import  beef?  Show  why  dealers  in  England  are  greatly 
interested  in  the  price  of  cattle  which  our  western  states  produce? 

13.  Why  is  it  desirable  for  England  and  the  United  States  to  be  on  friendly  terms? 

14.  Name  several  possessions  of  the  British  Empire  that  are  well  located  for  modern 

civilization.     Those  not  so  well  located. 

15.  Formerly  no  country  could  compare  with  England  in  its  output  of  coal  and 

iron.  Name  two  formidable  rivals  that  now  exist.  What  does*  this  bring 
about?  (Competition.) 

16.  Why  does  England  feel  the  necessity  of  having  so  large  a  navy?    (The  extent 

and  remoteness  of  her  possessions.)  Of  having  so  large  a  merchant  marine? 
Next  to  her  colonies,  Great  Britain's  greatest  trade  is  with  the  United 
States.  How  do  you  account  for  this? 

17.  Does  the  population,  other  things  being  equal,  have  any  influence  upon  the 

manufacturing  of  a  city?    What  other  elements  enter  into  this  question? 

18.  Compare  the  present  condition  of  Australia  with  its  condition  when  England 

took  possession.  Discuss  the  people;  mode  of  life;  occupations  or  what- 
ever you  feel  enters  into  this  comparison. 

19.  At  times,  such  as  the  coronation  of  George  V,  representative  people  from  all 

parts  of  the  British  Empire  were  present.  Imagine  yourself  a  visitor  at 
that  time  and  give  to  your  friends  a  description  of  the  appearance  of  these 
different  peoples.  Show  in  what  way  this  pageant  might  impress  the 
British  subjects  with  the  extent  and  power  of  their  government. 

20.  What  relation  do  Canada,  Australia,  India,  New  Zealand,  Tasmania,  the 

Transvaal  and  Orange  River  colonies  bear  to  the  British  Empire? 

(a)  What  political  power  does  the  British  Empire  exercise  over  these  colonies? 
Discuss  some  of  the  most  important  of  these,  as  to  the  people  and  mode 
of  life;  the  climate;  products;  occupations;  imports  and  exports. 

(6)  What  country  carries  on  the  greatest  amount  of  trade  with  these  colonies? 
Give  the  reason  for  this. 

(c)  Follow  the  course  of  a  British  merchant  vessel  sailing  from  Liverpool  to 

Melbourne  or  Sydney  via  the  Suez  Canal. 
Tell  at  what  ports  it  would  be  likely  to  stop. 
What  exports  would  it  probably  leave? 
What  imports  would  it  probably  take? 

(d)  What  do  you  understand  the  expression,  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia, 

to  mean? 

(e)  How  do  they  secure  their  Governor-General? 

(/)  Discuss  the  question  of  coaling  stations  for  the  British  Empire. 

(1)  Where  located? 

(2)  How  were  they  secured? 

(3)  Why  of  great  advantage  to  the  empire? 

The  last  illustration  is  taken  from  System  12. 

THE  NETHERLANDS  —  A  TYPE 

Work  in  home  geography  affords  a  growing  interest  in  the  Dutch.  We  locate 
their  country  and  study  them  in  their  home  environment. 

Before  studying  the  topics  outlined  below,  class  interest  is  obtained  by  reading 
selections  from  "Hans  Brinker"  and  a  short  description  in  Carpenter's  "Europe," 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  61 

dealing  with  the  industries  of  the  country.  The  solution  of  the  discovered  prob- 
lem gives  a  definite  purpose  for  considering  physical  conditions  that  are  in  part 
responsible  for  the  life  and  industries  of  the  country. 

PROBLEM:   "Why  is  grazing  an  important  industry  in  The  Netherlands?" 
REVIEW:  Locate  grazing  regions  studied  in  United  States  and  Canada. 
Recall  conditions  favorable  for  grazing: 

1.  Surface  generally  level. 

2.  Climate  not  suitable  for  agriculture. 

(a)  Rainfall. 

(b)  Temperature. 
Location:  Political  map. 

Surrounding  countries  and    waters:    Latitude  with  reference  to  40th 

parallel.     Comparison  with  New  York. 
Size:  Extent.     Comparison. 
Surface:  Physical  map  in  Atlas. 

1.  The  Rhine  Basin.    Application  of  study  of  general  surface  map,  noting 

peculiarities  of  surface. 

2.  Dykes:  Their  purpose,  size,  care;   stories,  pictures. 

3.  Dunes:   Nature's  aid  in  helping  to  shut  out  the  sea.    Influence  of  sand  and 

prevailing  westerlies. 

4.  Reclaimed    lands.     Fitting  for  use,  draining,  canals,  pumps,  windmills. 

Use  made  of  winds. 
Grazing:   Application  of  surface  conditions  favorable  for  grazing  to  reclaimed 

and  other  sections.    Comparison  with  United  States.    Among  Alps. 
Temperature:  Atlas. 

July  temperature.     Comparison  with  New  York  and  United  States. 

Application  of  temperature  conditions  favorable  for  grazing. 
Rainfall:  Atlas. 

Influence  of  prevailing  westerlies.     Application  and  comparison  with 

United  States. 
Summary:  Solution  of  problem. 

Because  of  the  generally  level  land,  range  of  temperature,  and  distribu- 
tion of  rainfall,  grazing  may  be  carried  on  in  The  Netherlands. 
Dairying:   Result  of  grazing.    Comparison  with  United  States.    Alps. 
Cattle:    Kind,  number,   care,  cleanliness,   sheds.     Comparison  with  United 

States.    Alps. 

Life  of  the  People:   Comparison  with  cowboy  life.    Life  among  the  Alps. 
Butter  and  Cheese:  The  making.    Centers  of  dairying.    Markets  at  home  and 

abroad,  their  location. 
Industry  of  towns  depends  upon  accessibility  of  raw  products,  nearness  to 

markets  demanding  products,  ease  of  transportation. 
Transportation:  Routes.    Ports  from  which  shipped,  Rotterdam,  Amsterdam. 

The  illustrations  offered  are  representative  of  courses  of  study  in 
general.  There  are  courses  which  consist  of  a  list  of  topics,  stating, 
also,  in  some  instances,  the  pages  of  the  text-book  used  in  the  class 
work.  Again  there  are  courses  which  outline  in  some  detail  the  list 
of  sub-topics,  indicating  logical  relationships,  and  pointing  out  that 


62  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

organization  of  facts  which  ought  to  be  obtained  after  the  subject 
has  been  taught.  The  third  illustration  represents  a  class  also 
stating  the  logical  relationships  obtaining  in  the  subject  matter 
and  adding  some  suggestions,  here  in  the  form  of  problems,  which 
are  to  point  out  to  the  teacher  effective  methods  of  accomplishing 
the  end  desired.  The  last  illustration  indicates  an  attempt  to  point 
out  the  way  by  which  the  teacher  may  secure  organization  of 
subject  matter  on  part  of  the  children.  It  is  the  only  course  of  the 
twelve  used  as  a  basis  for  this  study  which  goes  so  far  as  to  suggest 
a  problem  which  pupils  appreciate,  suggest  data  to  be  used  in  its 
solution,  and  state  the  conclusion  which  children  are  to  draw. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  attempt  an  adequate  criticism 
of  any  one  of  these  plans  at  this  stage  of  the  discussion.  It  should 
be  said,  however,  that  the  first  course  offers  absolutely  no  aid  to 
the  teacher;  that  the  second  and  third  are  useful  chiefly  because 
they  point  out  more  or  less  fully  —  especially  in  case  of  the  second 
illustration  —  the  final  product  of  study  or  reflection,  but  not  the 
way  to  attain  it;  that  the  fourth  offers  some  sound  suggestions  but 
fails  to  carry  the  psychology  upon  which  it  is  based  to  its  logical 
conclusion.  A  more  extended  discussion  of  this  point  will  be 
attempted  below. 

The  striking  fact  is  that  the  majority  of  courses  of  study  seem 
to  ignore  the  problem  of  organization  of  materials  for  the  purpose 
of  instruction.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that  its  importance  is  not 
recognized  in  such  systems;  it  is  more  likely  that  it  is  felt  to  be 
purely  a  problem  of  method  rightfully  belonging  to  the  class  teacher. 
This  would  seem  to  be  indicated  by  an  assignment  of  work  taken 
from  a  curriculum  not  included  in  the  twelve  made  the  basis  of 
this  study,  which  reads  as  follows:  "Natural  Elementary  Geog- 
raphy, pp.  87-109.  Europe.  Select  wisely."  In  this  same  system, 
we  are  told,  the  teacher  "must  know  all  there  is  to  be  known  of 
the  country  she  is  teaching.  She  must  be  able  to  separate  the  im- 
portant from  the  unimportant.  She  must  not  only  tell,  but  she 
must  teach.  Knowledge,  careful  discrimination,  interesting  presen- 
tation are  very  important  in  this  work."  The  directions  which 
are  given  to  the  teachers  of  this  grade  and  topic  are  given  to  the 
teachers  of  the  preceding  and  following  grades  as  well.  The  intro- 
ductory statement  to  this  course  in  geography  is  quite  devoid  of  any 
specific  aims  or  standards  of  selection  and  one  wonders  how  even 
the  most  capable  teachers  can  "select  wisely"  under  those  conditions. 

The  problem  of  organizing  a  curriculum,  that  is,  the  selection 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  63 

and  arrangement  of  instruction  materials  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
secure  their  proper  functioning  in  the  development  of  the  child, 
is  not  the  problem  of  the  class  teacher  alone.  To  construct  a 
curriculum  requires  a  broader  knowledge  of  subject  matter  and  its 
adaptability  to  the  several  grades  than  the  class  teacher  in  any 
grade  ordinarily  has.  It  requires  also  a  clear  conception  of  social 
and  industrial  conditions  for  which  the  child  is  to  be  fitted.  There 
is  needed  further  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of 
childhood  for  each  of  the  several  periods  of  development,  and  of 
the  method  based  upon  this  psychology.  And,  finally,  there  is 
needed  a  much  broader  knowledge  of  life  as  it  is  at  present,  of  the 
affairs  people  are  thinking  and  talking  about,  of  what  they  are 
doing,  etc.,  than  the  teacher  usually  has.  Neither  class  teacher 
nor  superintendent  alone  therefore  possesses  the  necessary  quali- 
fications to  construct  the  curriculum;  the  cooperation  of  both  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  best  result. 

3.  How  should  Instruction  Materials  be  Organized  in  Courses  of 
Study  sb  as  to  be  of  Greatest  Assistance  to  the  Teacher  in  her  At- 
tempt to  Secure  Organization  of  Subject  Matter  by  the  Pupil? 

a.  Problems  of  a  Vital  Nature  must  be  Provided. 

i.  An  attempt  will  now  be  made  to  show  how  courses  of  study 
should  be  constructed  so  as  to  be  of  greatest  aid  to  teachers  in  their 
attempt  to  make  instruction  materials  meaningful,  to  bring  about 
organization  of  facts  by  pupils.  First  of  all,  curricula  must  provide 
the  problems  of  vital  significance  to  the  pupil  required  as  the  essen- 
tial condition  of  all  thinking.  Whether  or  not  the  problem  to  be 
discussed  by  teachers  and  pupils  shall  be  a  problem  of  action,  or  one 
having  for  its  purpose  the  explanation  of  a  specific  instance,  or  one 
having  as  its  end  the  development  of  a  general  principle,  or  that 
which  attempts  the  explanation  of  a  situation  assuming  the  pre- 
vious development  of  the  explaining  principle,  must  be  decided  by 
those  in  charge  of  the  making  of  the  course  of  study. 

To  provide  problems  of  the  right  sort  two  factors  must  be  con- 
sidered at  every  stage  of  the  child's  progress  in  school,  (i)  What 
are  the  needs,  both  native  and  acquired,  of  children,  which  are 
most  available  for  the  educative  process?  (2)  What  are  their  ex- 
periences which  lend  themselves  most  readily  to  suggest  to  the  pupil 
the  relation  between  a  certain  need  and  the  effort  necessary  for  its 
satisfaction?  What,  in  other  words,  are  the  experiences  of  the 


64  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

child  which  can  be  utilized  to  make  certain  tasks  or  problems  ap- 
pear worth  while?  The  native  needs  of  children  during  the  several 
stages  of  development  were  briefly  stated  in  Chapter  I;  these, 
although  varying  somewhat  as  to  strength  and  time  of  appearance, 
are  generally  available.  The  acquired  needs,  on  the  other  hand, 
differ  in  different  individuals  and  groups  of  individuals.  While 
grafted  upon  the  primitive  or  native  needs  they  are  determined  by 
the  environment  of  the  child,  the  economic,  the  social,  and  religious 
status  of  the  parent,  and  the  consequent  opportunities,  or  lack  of 
opportunities,  for  experience  in  certain  directions;  his  physical 
environment,  etc.  In  the  construction  of  a  course  of  study  the 
makers  must  make  a  survey  of  the  needs  of  the  children  of  the 
community  concerned  and  make  them  the  basis  for  the  suggestion 
of  problems. 

What  are  the  experiences  of  the  children  which  lend  themselves 
most  readily  to  furnish  a  setting  for  the  problem  and  to  suggest 
the  value  of  its  solution  to  the  pupil?  First  may  be  mentioned 
the  school  experiences  of  the  children.  There  is  always  a  consider- 
able number  of  facts  in  the  possession  of  the  children  who  have 
been  in  school  for  some  time  which  may  be  used  in  this  manner. 
Thus,  after  the  completion  of  the  study  of  the  geography  of  the 
United  States  and  other  countries  of  the  Americas  it  will  have 
been  noted  that  we  export  cotton,  wheat,  meat,  dairy  products, 
and  mineral  oil  to  Great  Britain;  that  we  import  from  that  country 
cotton  goods,  wool  and  woolen  goods,  tin,  manufactured  fibres. 
The  products  interchanged  between  Great  Britain  and  other  Ameri- 
can countries  may  also  be  noted.  Attention  may  then  be  called 
to  the  kinds  of  materials  which  the  United  States  and  other  American 
countries  send  to  Great  Britain  and  the  kinds  which  that  country 
sends  to  America.  It  will  be  noted  that  we  send  raw  materials  for 
manufacturing  purposes  and  foodstuffs  largely;  that  Great  Britain 
does  not  send  us  foodstuffs  but  manufactured  products.  These 
facts  suggest  two  problems  for  discussion:  Why  does  Great  Britain 
import  so  many  foodstuffs?  and  Why  does  Great  Britain  engage 
in  manufacturing  so  extensively?  Other  problems,  the  significance 
of  which  may  be  shown  by  appealing  to  school  experiences  are: 
Why  is  fresh  air  so  necessary  to  our  health?  Why  is  exercise  in 
the  open  air  so  valuable?  Why  is  oxygen  so  important  to  the  blood? 
To  the  digestion?  How  does  oxygen  keep  us  warm?  How  can  we 
keep  the  air  in  our  rooms  fresh?  9  Why  did  the  Articles  of  Con- 
9  Taken  from  course  of  System  12. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  65 

federation  prove  unsatisfactory  to  the  country?  How  did  the 
country  secure  a  new  constitution?  How  will  the  Federalists  suc- 
ceed in  their  attempt  to  give  the  country  a  stronger  government? 

In  a  similar  manner  the  community  experiences  of  the  children 
may  be  used;  what  the  people  of  his  immediate  environment  are 
interested  in,  what  they  talk  about,  what  they  do,  very  often  sug- 
gests to  the  child  the  value  of  experience  in  certain  directions. 
Why  is  Colorado  considered  a  good  location  for  people  suffering 
from  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs?  Why  do  some  of  our  western  states, 
in  spite  of  their  deficient  rainfall,  succeed  in  raising  much  fruit  and 
other  agricultural  products?  What  kind  of  men  should  be  elected 
aldermen?  Why  should  the  business  streets  of  our  village  be  oiled 
during  the  summer  months?  Why  should  the  nominee  of  the  demo- 
cratic rather  than  the  nominee  of  the  republican  party  have  our 
support  in  the  coming  election?  Such  problems  as  these  are  fre- 
quently discussed  by  adults,  and  children  not  only  are  but  should 
be  interested  in  them. 

A  further  source  of  good  problems  is  the  larger  environment  of 
the  pupils,  the  life  of  the  nation,  even  of  the  world,  with  which  he 
comes  in  contact  through  the  daily  press,  through  magazine  litera- 
ture, through  lectures  and  sermons,  etc.  Should  the  United  States 
continue  to  uphold  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  or  has  the  latter  outlived 
its  usefulness?  Should  all  the  nations  of  the  world  be  permitted  to 
use  the  Panama  Canal  on  equal  terms?  Why  should  the  United 
States  make  a  special  effort  to  be  on  good  terms  with  the  nations  of 
South  America?  These  are  illustrations  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  type  of  experience  may  be  used  in  suggesting  problems.  Be- 
cause of  the  nature  of  the  source  of  these  problems  it  is  evident  that 
they  will  not  constitute  a  prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  before 
the  grammar  grades,  that  is,  before  the  pupils  come  in  contact  with 
these  sources.  -o 

Will  problems  permit  the  introduction  into  the  curriculum  of 
those  facts  generally  looked  upon  as  essential  in  subjects  in  which 
thinking  and  the  organization  of  experience  into  concepts  play  an 
important  part?  If  it  is  granted  that  the  one  reason  for  the  intro- 
duction of  facts  into  such  subjects  is  their  use  in  the  development 
of  concepts  the  answer  is  simple:  one  reason  for  the  introduction 
of  problems  is  that  we  may  have  an  effective  means  of  controlling 
the  selection  and  arrangement  of  such  facts  as  are  of  value  in  de- 
veloping the  concept.  On  this  basis  all  the  essential  facts  will 
be  included  and  no  other  facts  should  find  a  place  in  the  curriculum. 


66  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

Thus  the  geography  of  Great  Britain  is  .presented  in  System  i 
under  the  following  heads:  Position,  Size,  Shore  Line,  Relief, 
Climate,  Drainage,  Important  Cities,  Products  and  Industries, 
Commercial  Importance,  and  People.  These  are  the  topics  which, 
with  slight  modifications,  are  usually  suggested  in  courses  of  study 
and  text-books  in  general.  In  Chapter  V  these  facts  are  discussed 
in  connection  with  the  problem  "Why  does  Great  Britain  buy 
wheat,  meat,  other  foodstuffs  and  cotton  of  America  and  pay  for 
them  with  manufactured  goods?"  The  topics  usually  treated  in 
connection  with  the  financial  legislation  of  Congress  during  the 
first  two  administrations  are 

(1)  Tariff. 

(2)  Hamilton's  Report  on  Public  Debt  and  Public  Credit. 

(a)  Funding  the  debt. 

(6)  Assumption  of  state  debts. 

(3)  Excise  Tax. 

(4)  National  Bank. 

(5)  Protection  to  Home  Industries. 

(6)  Whiskey  Rebellion. 

In  Chapter  V  these  topics  are  discussed  in  connection  with  the 
problem,  "How  will  the  Federalists  succeed  in  establishing  the 
credit  of  the  new  government  at  home  and  in  European  countries?" 
From  these  illustrations  it  will  be  evident  that  certainly  most  of 
the  topics  usually  treated  will  still  continue  to  find  a  place  in  the 
curriculum,  but  that  their  reason  for  retention  will  be  their  value 
in  the  solution  of  problems.  That  some  facts  which  to  the  adult 
writer  or  student  appear  to  be  necessary  for  the  sake  of  complete 
logical  system  will  be  omitted  will  not  be  a  misfortune;  children 
will  be  able  to  arrive  at  the  complete  logical  system  only  by  traveling 
the  road  here  indicated. 

Shall  one  or  more  than  one  problem  be  used  in  'the  treatment  of 
a  topic  like  the  geography  of  Great  Britain?  While  all  the  essential 
facts  bearing  upon  a  topic  may  often  be  discussed  in  connection 
with  one  problem,  very  distinct  advantages  will  arise  if  they  are 
treated  in  relation  to  several.  Thus,  in  the  first  place,  since  the 
several  problems  are  likely  to  require  the  use  of  data  in  many  in- 
stances identical  this  procedure  will  afford  an  excellent  means  for 
review  and  drill.  Writers  on  educational  theory  insist  that  an 
effective  "review"  is  a  "view  from  a  new  position,"  10  "a  re-seeing 
from  a  different  standpoint."  u  This  the  introduction  of  several 

10  McMurry,  Method  of  the  Recitation,  p.  177. 

11  Bolton,  Principles  of  Education,  p.  555. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  67 

problems  makes  possible.  In  the  second  place,  a  better  organiza- 
tion of  facts  will  result  in  this  manner,  the  same  facts  will  be  seen 
in  new  relations  and  thus  become  more  significant.12  How  very 
important  to  a  real  understanding  of  a  topic-complete  organization 
of  ideas  —  it  is  to  see  it  in  numerous  relations  is  very  clearly  shown 
by  McMurry.13  In  presenting  the  geography  of  Great  Britain, 
therefore,  while  it  is  possible  to  teach  all  the  facts  usually  found  in 
the  text-books,  in  relation  to  the  problem  "  Why  does  Great  Britain 
buy  wheat,  meat,  other  foodstuffs,  and  cotton  of  America  and  pay 
for  them  with  manufactured  products?"  other  problems  should 
be  considered  as,  e.g.,  Why  do  Americans  like  to  travel  in  the 
United  Kingdom?  Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  maintain  so 
large  a  navy?  How  does  the  British  government  encourage  manu- 
facturing? In  Chapter  V  these  problems  are  worked  out  in  some 
detail. 

To  what  extent  may  problems  be  introduced  into  the  elementary 
school  curriculum?  May  we  resort  to  them  in  every  branch  of 
study?  "The  problem  is  well-nigh  universal  in  every  field  of  human 
endeavor,  educational  and  vocational,  for  whenever  the  adjustment 
of  thought  to  fact  or  of  fact  to  thought  is  involved,  there  the  prob- 
lem lies  close  at  hand.  That  it  is  of  supreme  educational  importance 
in  the  sciences  cannot  be  doubted;  it  is  equally  serviceable  in  the 
humanities  whenever  the  student  should  be  incited  to  think.  His- 
tory easily  resolves  itself  into  a  series  of  problems  respecting  cause 
and  effect.  Every  literary  masterpiece  fairly  bristles  with  problems 
psychological,  social,  ethical,  and  linguistic.  Even  the  purely 
aesthetic,  whose  appreciation  is  usually  considered  to  rest  upon 
contemplation  alone,  is  greatly  aided  by  intellectual  comprehen- 
sion, which  always  permits  the  problem  form."  14  There  are  prob- 
lems in  sufficient  number  to  be  found  in  every  branch  of  study; 
therefore;  the  task  remaining  for  school  authorities  is  to  select  and 
formulate  desirable  ones  and  so  render  them  available  to  teacher 
and  children. 

Of  the  curricula  investigated  two  suggest  problems  in  geog- 
raphy,15 two  in  physiology,16  one  in  elementary  science  or  nature 
study.17  In  no  case  are  problems  suggested  in  history,  arithmetic, 
drawing  and  music.  One  reason  for  this  situation  may  be  the  fact 

12  Bolton,  op.  cit.,  555.  13  Op.  cit.,  p.  178. 

14  DeGarmo,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Processes  of  Instruction, 
pp.  23-24. 

"  Systems  V  and  XII.  16  Systems  VIII  and  IX.  "  System  XII. 


68  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

that  vital  problems  of  a  practical  nature  suggest  themselves  more 
readily  in  the  three  branches  first  named  than  in  some  of  the  rest. 
It  should  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  because  problems  of  an 
immediately  practical  nature  cannot  be  found,  no  problems  of 
vital  interest  to  children  should  be  looked  for.  In  fact,  to  the  fifth 
grade  child  struggling  with  division  of  decimals,  the  problem  "How 
must  I  proceed  in  division  of  decimals  in  order  to  make  sure  of  the 
proper  placing  of  the  decimal  point  in  the  quotient?"  may  be  of 
extreme  significance.  The  problem  "What  colors  must  I  mix,  and 
in  what  proportion,  to  secure  a  dark  brown?"  may  be  vital  indeed; 
and  the  problem  "How  can  I  tell  the  key  in  which  a  musical  selec- 
tion is  written?"  may  be  thoroughly  appreciated  by  children. 
Problems  are  not  equally  numerous  in  all  branches  of  instruction. 
In  arithmetic,  spelling,  music,  and  drawing  we  are  largely  concerned 
with  habit  formation,  learning  facts  in  specific  relation  only;  think- 
ing or  reasoning,  therefore,  plays  but  a  minor  part  in  certain  les- 
sons, and  problems  will  not  be  resorted  to.  However,  where  the 
task  is  the  acquisition  of  new  experiences  and  their  organization, 
making  them  significant,  the  problem  must  be  introduced;  for  it  is 
the  function  of  the  problem  to  induce  thinking,  to  direct  thought  in 
certain  channels,  to  lead  to  organization  of  experience,  to  the  devel- 
opment of  concepts  and  their  application. 

b.  The  "  Setting  "  of  the  Problems  should  be  Indicated. 

2.  Second,  courses  of  study  should  indicate  the  experiences 
which  are  to  be  used  as  a  basis,  or  setting,  for  the  problems  to  be 
considered.  The  experience  of  the  pupil,  as  has  previously  been 
suggested,  must  not  be  interpreted  to  mean  only  that  which  he  has 
gained  through  the  pursuit  of  any  one  study.  This  undoubtedly, 
as  he  progresses  through  the  grades,  will  come  to  constitute  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  all  the  experience  available  for  the  origination 
of  problems.  But  there  is  always  the  knowledge  which  he  has 
acquired  in  other  branches  of  study  closely  related  to  the  one  in 
question,  and  very  frequently,  most  important  of  all,  the  many 
experiences  which  he  has  acquired  both  in  school  and  out  which 
the  course  of  study  does  not  provide  for.  This  latter  class  of  experi- 
ence has  been  gotten  in  a  more  or  less  incidental  manner  and  is 
likely  to  have  the  shortcomings  of  all  chance  information.  Often 
it  will  be  ill  defined,  and  frequently  it  will  be  lacking  a  rational 
basis.  But  it  is  often  closely  related  to  the  child's  life  of  action,  has 
a  more  or  less  intimate  relation  to  some  native  or  acquired  interest 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  69 

of  his,  and  has  for  this  reason  made  a  more  vivid  impression  upon 
him  than  much  of  his  school  experience.  It  will,  as  a  result,  be 
more  responsive  when  problems  are  proposed  which  appear  to  have 
some  relation  to  it.  For  this  reason  this  material  should  be  used 
whenever  the  nature  of  the  problem  makes  it  possible.  In  accord- 
ance then,  with  the  nature  of  the  problem  which  is  to  be  raised  for 
discussion,  the  curriculum  should  indicate:  (i)  A  review  of  certain 
school  experiences;  these  may  be  taken  from  the  branch  imme- 
diately concerned,  or  from  related  branches.  (2)  A  review  of  pos- 
sible community  experiences  having  a  bearing  upon  the  problem. 
(3)  A  review  of  experiences  obtained  from  the  daily  press,  magazine 
literature,  etc.,  relating  to  the  larger  environment  of  the  child.  In 
certain  cases  also,  when  sufficient  experiences  are  not  yet  within 
the  possession  of  the  child,  provision  must  be  made  for  them  by 
the  curriculum.  An  illustration  of  this  demand  upon  curricula  is 
given  below;  it  is  taken  from  System  XII,  course  in  geography: 

Before  studying  the  topics  outlined  below,  class  interest  is  obtained  by  reading 
selections  from  "Hans  Brinker"  and  a  short  description  in  Carpenter's  "Europe," 
dealing  with  the  industries  of  the  country.  The  solution  of  the  discovered  problem 
gives  a  definite  purpose  for  considering  physical  conditions  that  are  in  part  responsi- 
ble for  the  life  and  industries  of  the  country. 

Of  the  curricula  investigated  problems  were  suggested  by  Sys- 
tem XII  in  some  of  the  branches.  Thus  in  geography  we  note 
the  following  among  others:  How  streets,  tunnels,  and  bridges 
knit  together  the  scattered  parts  of  our  city;  how  traffic  is  accom- 
rriodated  and  expedited;  how  our  streets  are  made  safe  and  attrac- 
tive for  city  dwellers; 18  how  the  activities  of  the  colonizing  nations 
of  Europe  are  influencing  the  primitive  peoples  with  whom  they 
come  in  contact.19  How  do  our  local  dealers  get  their  supplies? 
What  is  a  wholesale  market  and  where  is  it  located?  Why  can 
certain  foods  be  raised  at  home  and  not  others?  20  Why  is  the 
United  Kingdom  the  greatest  exporter  of  manufactured  goods?  Why 
is  Russia  called  "The  Land  of  Silence"?  Why  should  New  York 
have  so  large  a  foreign  population?  21  Other  problems  are  found 
on  pages  28,  32,  35,  39-41  of  the  course  in  geography. 

In  nature  study  the  following  are  some  of  the  problems  sug- 
gested: How  do  plants  get  ready  for  winter?  Why  does  the  rabbit 
make  a  good  pet?  How  does  he  take  care  of  himself?  What  can 
we  do  to  make  him  happy?  22  How  are  spring  flowers  able  to  get 
into  bloom  so  quickly?  M  How  does  New  York  get  its  water  supply? 
18  p.  15.  19  p.  16.  20  p.  21.  21  p.  26.  22  p.  34.  23  p.  35. 


yo  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

How  can  an  airman  tell  how  high  in  the  air  he  is?  How  are  divers 
able  to  go  below  the  surface  of  the  water?  24  The  materials  suggested 
for  study  in  Grade  6  are  largely  stated  in  problem  form  while  in 
other  grades  little  or  no  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to  do 
so.  In  these  two  branches  only  are  problems  suggested  in  this 
system.  In  System  VIII  problems  are  suggested  in  geography 
and  in  physiology  and  hygiene.  Again  no  consistent  attempt  seems 
to  have  been  made  to  use  the  problem  as  a  means  of  securing  or- 
ganization of  materials  in  the  several  branches  of  the  curriculum. 
System  IX  introduces  the  problem  in  the  course  in  physiology  and 
hygiene  for  grades  four  and  five.25  While  the  headings  of  some  of 
the  topics  to  be  taught  are  occasionally  stated  in  such  a  form  as 
to  suggest  problems  in  the  course  of  history  of  System  I  they  are 
not  actually  formulated,  the  task  having  been  left  to  the  teacher. 
In  general,  therefore,  the  task  of  formulating  vital  problems  around 
which  instruction  materials  might  be  organized  has  been  omitted 
in  the  courses  of  study  of  the  twelve  systems  used  in  this  study. 
As  a  direct  result  of  this  fact  —  the  neglect  of  formulating  problems 
—  authors  of  courses  of  study  have  not  deemed  it  necessary  to 
suggest  experiences  which  might  be  used  as  a  basis  or  setting  for 
such  problems.  The  only  exception  to  this  statement  is  found  in 
System  XII,  "Netherlands." 

c.  Data  for  the  Solution  of  Problems  should  be  Suggested. 

Failing  to  supply  vital  problems  and  thereby  depriving  teachers 
of  standards  for  the  selection  of  instruction  materials,  one  should 
imagine  that  courses  of  study  would  indicate  in  some  detail  the 
facts  to  be  taught.  But  here  again  no  adequate  provision  has  been 
made  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  teacher. 

In  the  illustrations  given  above  (pp.  3-11)  the  first  merely  men- 
tions the  names  of  the  countries  to  be  taught  without  indicating 
in  any  way  what  facts  are  to  be  presented  under  each.  Even  the 
references  offer  no  help,  for  the  teacher  is  given  the  opportunity 
to  "use  any  text."  The  task  of  selecting  the  materials  to  be  taught 
is  here  left  entirely  to  the  teacher,  who,  in  the  absence  of  any 
standards  for  selection  supplied  her  by  the  curriculum,  may  follow 
either  her  own  inclination  or  custom  in  the  matter.  It  is  difficult 
to  see  how  under  these  conditions  the  teaching  of  Great  Britain 
can  be  anything  except  the  memorization  of  those  facts  which  the 

24  p.  43.  25  in  edition  of  1908-9  but  omitted  in  edition  of  1913-14. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  71 

author  of  the  text  chosen  by  the  teacher  has  deemed  it  wise  to 
include.  When  one  considers  that  different  authors  stress  somewhat 
different  points  or  lines  of  thought  and  discuss  topics  with  great 
variation  of  details,  one  wonders  how  there  can  be  any  continuity 
in  the  course  in  geography  of  this  system,  and  how  a  high  standard 
of  work  can  be  maintained.  System  VIII  has  gone  a  step  beyond 
System  IV  in  this  matter,  for  there  we  find  besides  the  name  of 
the  country  a  list  of  minor  topics  such  as  "  Location  and  climate 
of  mother  country";  " Physical  features  and  natural  advantages," 
etc.,  and  while  in  this  particular  illustration  no  details  are  suggested, 
this  is  often  done  with  other  countries.  Thus  in  the  outline  on 
France  under  "Climate"  the  teacher  is  directed  to  teach  (a)  the 
effect  of  the  prevailing  westerlies;  (b)  the  effect  of  the  mountain 
barrier  on  the  east;  (c)  to  compare  the  latitude  of  Paris  and  Duluth; 
of  Havre  and  Chicago.  Under  "Manufacturing"  the  teacher  is 
to  note  that  France  is  fourth  in  the  world  and  first  in  textiles;  that 
large  values  in  small  bulk  are  the  rule,  owing  to  artistic  workman- 
ship. Textiles,  wine,  porcelain,  automobiles,  mirrors,  art  goods, 
jewelry,  millinery,  dresses,  gloves,  are  the  products.  Further 
indications  of  the  facts  to  be  taught  are  found  in  the  suggestive 
questions  of  the  syllabus;  these,  however,  merely  suggest  a  certain 
line  of  thought  without  indicating  definitely  the  materials  to  be 
used.  The  teacher  is  here  again  left  to  her  own  resources  in  pro- 
curing most  of  the  materials  to  be  used  in  the  teaching  of  any  topic. 
In  the  syllabus  of  System  I  the  general  topic  "British  Isles"  is 
given  a  more  complete  analysis  than  in  the  preceding  two  illustra- 
tions. The  usual  sub- topics  appear  but  with  additional  sub-divi- 
sions. While  this  outline  on  the  whole  is  possibly  more  suggestive 
than  either  of  the  preceding  it  leaves  to  the  teacher  the  selection 
of  the  "important  or  interesting"  facts  which  the  children  are  to 
learn.  Whether  these  shall  be  literary,  or  historic,  or  geographic 
in  character,  and  if  the  latter,  whether  the  physiographic  features 
or  the  economic  shall  be  stressed,  is  not  indicated.  The  course  of 
study  of  System  XII  offers  little  more  assistance  in  the  selection 
of  data  than  that  of  System  I,  leaving  the  task  largely  to  the  teacher. 
In  the  illustration  cited,  however,  the  teacher  has  the  advantage 
of  a  problem  which  will  direct  her  efforts  in  certain  definite  chan- 
nels. In  general,  throughout  the  twelve  systems  studied,  topical 
outlines  prevail. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  criticism  here  made  of  curricula  is 
unfair,  that  the  facts  usually  taught  in  connection  with  certain 


72  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

topics  are  well  agreed  upon  by  text-books,  and  are  therefore  easily 
supplied  by  the  teacher.  But  triis  is  by  no  means  the  case.  While 
there  may  be  a  fair  agreement  among  authors  on  the  larger  topics 
to  be  included  in  the  treatment  of  a  given  subject  there  is  con- 
siderable diversity  of  procedure  when  it  comes  to  the  kind  and  num- 
ber of  minor  topics  and  the  kind  and  quantity  of  details  used  in  their 
development.  The  following  illustrations  will  make  this  evident. 
The  first  two,  taken  from  two  popular  text-books  in  geography, 
represent  the  discussion  of  "Germany"  which  each  author  gives. 
The  first  is  stated  in  toto;  the  second  presents  merely  the  marginal 
headings  used  in  the  text. 

GERMANY.  Germany  has  rich  coal  and  iron  mines,  beds  of  porcelain  clay,  and 
sand  for  making  glass.  The  river  valleys  of  this  country  are  famous  for  their 
wine  grapes.  Large  areas  are  planted  with  sugar  beets  and  with  cereals. 

This  country  imports  cotton  from  the  United  States,  wool  and  flax  from  Russia 
and  Hungary  and  raw  silks  from  Italy. 

The  principal  manufactures  of  Germany  are  cloth,  iron  articles,  beet  sugar, 
glass  and  porcelain.  Large  quantities  of  these  articles  are  sent  to  the  United  States. 
Besides  cotton  our  country  sends  grain,  meat,  petroleum,  and  tobacco  to  Germany, 
—  largely  through  the  port  of  Hamburg. 

Germany  ranks  second  among  commercial  countries. 

BERLIN,  the  capital,  is  the  third  city  in  size  in  Europe,  and  thus  ranks  next 
to  London  and  Paris.  Berlin  is  a  great  trade  center  and  the  seat  of  a  famous 
university. 

LEIPZIG  has  a  large  university  and  is  noted  for  book  publishing.  MUNICH  and 
DRESDEN  have  great  galleries  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

HAMBURG,  on  the  tide  water  of  the  Elbe,  is  the  leading  port  on  the  mainland  of 
Europe.  ESSEN  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  large  weapons  of  war. 

The  German  Empire  consists  of  many  smaller  divisions  having  their  own  local 
rulers,  but  all  are  combined  into  one  empire.  The  king  of  Prussia  is  also  emperor 
of  the  whole  German  nation.  Some  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  empire  are  ruled 
by  princes,  by  dukes  or  by  other  titled  officials.  Germany  has  large  possessions 
in  Africa.  Part  of  the  island  of  New  Guinea  and  various  smaller  islands  in  the 
Pacific  ocean  belong  to  that  country. 

Germany  is  famous  for  its  institutions  of  learning  and  for  the  splendid  discipline 
of  its  army. 

GERMAN  EMPIRE 
Position  and  its  advantages. 

Formation  of  the  empire;  present  area  and  population. 
Government. 

Why  the  boundary  is  so  irregular. 
Preparation  for  defense  of  the  country. 
Surface  features. 

1.  The  highlands. 

2.  The  lowlands. 

3.  Drainage. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  73 

Climate. 

1.  Temperature. 

2.  Rainfall. 
Lumbering. 

1.  Location  and  extent  of  the  forests. 

2.  Care  of  the  forests. 
Agriculture. 

1.  Its  importance. 

2.  Farm  crops. 

3.  Live  stock. 
Mining. 
Manufacturing. 

1.  Its  importance. 

2.  Leading  centers  of  manufacturing. 

3.  Leading  kinds  of  manufacturing. 

(1)  Textile  and  iron  goods. 

(2)  Lumber  and  lumber  products. 

(3)  Beverages. 

(4)  Beet  sugar. 
Germany's  rapid  advance. 

1.  Nature  of  the  advance. 

2.  Reasons  for  it. 

(1)  The  Government. 

(2)  Education. 

(3)  Improvement  in  transportation. 

(4)  Establishment  of  colonies,  and  interests  of  German  immigrants. 
Principal  cities. 

1.  Their  rapid  growth. 

2.  Berlin. 

(1)  Its  location. 

(2)  Its  importance. 

3.  Interior  cities  near  Berlin. 

(1)  Leipzig. 

(2)  Dresden. 

(3)  Chemnitz,  Halle,  and  Magdeburg. 

(4)  Breslau. 

4.  Munich  and  Nuremberg. 

5.   Seaports. 
6.   Cities  along  the  Rhine  River. 

(1)  Cologne  and  vicinity. 

(2)  Frankfort. 

The  Rhine  River  compared  with  the  Hudson. 

1.  In  scenery. 

2.  In  distribution  of  population  along  its  course. 

While  the  first  text  devotes  one-half  page  to  the  discussion,  the 
latter  gives  ten  and  a  half.  Evidently  teachers  depending  largely 
upon  the  content  of  the  text  will  receive  very  different  guidance  in 
the  two  cases. 


74  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

The  last  two  illustrations  are  taken  from  two  text-books  in  history 
both  written  in  1905.  The  authors  had  equal  opportunity  of  know- 
ing the  advance  movements  in  history  teaching  and  might  conse- 
quently be  expected  to  include  the  newer  topics  advocated  by 
students  of  this  field.  Chapters  on  colonial  life  are  taken  for  com- 
parison. The  outline  which  follows  is  taken  from  one  of  the  texts 
and  names  the  sub-topics  which  are  treated  in  the  course  of  the 
eighty  pages  devoted  to  the  discussion.  The  topics  discussed  in 
the  second  text  are  starred,  and  those  not  included  in  the  first 
outline  are  added  below.  While  the  first  text  devoted  eighty  pages 
to  the  subject,  the  second  gives  only  twelve.  Again  teachers  de- 
pending upon  the  text  will  receive  very  different  guidance  in  the 
two  cases. 

INSTITUTIONAL  LIFE  IN  THE  COLONIES 

INTRODUCTORY 
I.  THE  FIVE  INSTITUTIONS. 

1.  Their  Nature  and  Scope. 

2.  Relation  of  the  Individual  to  the  Five  Institutions. 

3.  Importance  of  Their  Study. 

II.  TOPOGRAPHY.    CLIMATE  AND  SOIL. 

1.  Their  General  Effect  on  Institutional  Life. 

2.  Their  Condition  in  the  New  England  and  Southern  Colonies. 

3.  Their  Condition  in  the  Middle  Colonies. 

4.  Their  Relation  to  Slavery  and  the  Results. 

INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS 

I.  COMMERCIAL  INDUSTRIES. 

1.  The  Southern  Colonies. 

(a)  Products. 

*(1)   Tobacco. 

*(2)  Rice,  Indigo,  and  Cotton. 

(3)  Other  Products. 
(6)  Plantations. 

(1)  Relation  to  Growth  of  Cities  and  Manufactures. 

(2)  Relation  to  Growth  of  Slavery. 

Topic  from  second  text:   When  the  Great  Ship  came  to  the 
Planter's  Door. 

2.  NEW  ENGLAND. 

(a)  Occupations. 

*(1)  Farming:  Relation  to  Topography,  Climate  and  Soil. 

*(2)  Manufactures  —  very  briefly. 

*(3)  The  Fish  Industry:  Trade  and  Commerce. 
(&)   Relation  of  Physical  Conditions  to  Slavery. 

3.  The  Middle  Colonies. 

(a)  Occupations. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  75 

*(1)  Agriculture:  Relation  to  Topography,  Climate,  and  Soil. 
*(2)  Manufactures:  Opposition  of  England. 
*(3)  Trade  and  Commerce. 
(6)   Relation  of  Industrial  Conditions  to  the  Growth  of  Slavery. 

Topics  from  second  text:  Smuggling  and  Piracy,  Means  of  Travel. 
4.   Conclusions  as  to  Influence  of  Topography,  Climate  and  Soil. 

II.  PROFESSIONAL  LIFE. 

1.  The  Ministry. 

(a)  The  Ministry  of  New  England. 

(b)  The  Ministry  of  the  Middle  Colonies. 

(c)  The  Ministry  of  the  South. 

2.  Medicine. 

3.  Law. 

SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 

I.  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES. 
*1.   Population:  Classes  of  Society. 

(a)  The  Negro  Slave. 

(b)  Indented  White  Servants. 

(c)  The  Middle  and  Upper  Classes. 

2.  Life  on  the  Plantations. 

*3.  Fashion  among  the  Upper  Classes. 
*4.  Amusements. 

Topic  from  second  text:  Governor's  Reception  at  Williamsburg. 

II.  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES. 
*1.   Classes  of  Society. 

(a)  Slaves. 

(b)  Indented  Servants. 

(c)  The  Middle  and  Upper  Classes. 

*2.  The  Manors  of  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk. 

3.  Dress,  Amusements,  and  Social  Life. 

(a)  In  the  Country  and  Small  Towns. 
(6)  In  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 

Topics  from  second  text:  Colonial  Houses,  Furniture  and  Light,  Training 
Day  and  Rifle  Practice. 

GOVERNMENT 
I.  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT. 

1.  Introductory. 

(a)  Divisions  of  Government. 

(b}  Harmony  of  Laws:  Changes  and  Improvements. 

2.  The  County,  Township,  and  Parish. 

(a)  The  County  at  the  Present  Time:  its  Powers  and  Duties. 

(6)  Importance  of  the  County  in  the  Colonies:  Growth  of  its  Powers. 

(1)  The  County  in  New  England:  The  Township. 

(2)  The  County  in  South  Carolina,  the  Parish  and  District. 


76  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

(3)  The  County  of  Virginia. 

(4)  The  County  in  the  Middle  Colonies. 
3.   Colonial  Influence  on  Local  Government. 

(a)  Result  in  Different  Sections. 

(6)  Growth  of  the  Principle  of  Township  Government. 

II.  STATE  AND  COLONIAL  GOVERNMENT. 

1.  State  Government. 

(a)  Relation  to  National  and  Local  Government. 

(b)  Departments  of  Government. 

(1)  Legislative  Department. 

(2)  Executive  Department. 

(3)  Judicial  Department. 

(c)  In  What  Respects  State,  National,  and  Local  Government  Differ. 

2.  Colonial  Government:  Mode  of  Treatment. 

(a)  Departments. 

(1)  Legislative  Department. 

(2)  Executive  Department:  Classes  of  Colonial  Government. 

(3)  Judicial  Department. 

(b)  The  National  Authority. 

(c)  Relation  to  Present  State  Government. 

RELIGION 

I.  RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY  AT  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

II.  RELIGIOUS  PERSECUTION  IN  EUROPE. 

III.  RELIGIOUS  PERSECUTION  IN  THE  COLONIES. 

IV.  CAUSES  OF  RELIGIOUS  PERSECUTION. 

V.  GROWTH  or  RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Topics  from  second  text:    Colonial  Church  Ways,  Severe  Punishments. 
Witchcraft. 

EDUCATION 

I.  COMPARISON  OF  COLONIAL  SCHOOLS  WITH  THOSE  OF  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
II.  CONDITIONS  OF  SCHOOLS  IN  ENGLAND. 

III.  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES. 
*1.   Work  of  the  Ministers. 

2.  Effect  of  Plantation  Life:  Opposition  of  Royal  Governors. 

3.  Schools:  College  of  William  and  Mary. 

IV.  NEW  ENGLAND. 

1.  Influence  of  the  Puritan  Church  and  its  Ministers.. 

2.  First  Law  establishing  Public  Schools:  Influence  of  Church  on  Legislation. 

3.  Elementary  Education  in  New  England. 
*4.   Colleges. 

V.  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES. 
*1.   New  York  and  New  Jersey. 

*2.  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware:  Influence  of  Franklin  on  Education. 
*3.   Colleges. 

Topics  from  second  text:  Libraries,  Newspapers. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  77 

Evidently  the  mere  statement  of  the  topic  in  curricula  is  therefore 
not  sufficient  to  insure  the  teaching  of  specific  facts  whether  such 
facts  are  looked  upon  as  having  an  intrinsic  value,  or  are  intended 
to  be  used  for  the  development  of  a  generalization,  or  are  the  general 
facts,  or  concepts  themselves.  To  state  merely  the  topics,  as  was 
seen  above,  leaves  the  teacher  very  much  at  sea  as  to  the  content 
to  be  taught;  certainly  when  the  problems  essential  in  the  selection 
of  materials  are  lacking,  courses  of  study  should  indicate  in  some 
detail,  just  what  facts,  individual  and  general,  are  to  be  included. 

However,  even  when  the  curriculum  indicates  a  series  of  prob- 
lems this  will  be  found  essential.  For  vital  problems  will  often 
deal  with  current  issues,  or  at  least  comparatively  recent  issues, 
for  the  treatment  of  which  teachers  will  be  required  to  go  outside 
of  the  text.  Text-books  are  not  generally  written  with  such  prob- 
lems as  a  basis  and  must  necessarily  fail  to  supply  some  of  the  data 
required  for  the  purpose.  It  therefore  becomes  the  teacher's  task 
to  look  elsewhere.  Thus  it  will  become  necessary  to  consult  general 
and  special  reference  works,  special  treatises,  magazine  literature, 
the  daily  press;  in  fact,  in  some  cases  —  home  geography,  for  ex- 
ample, the  facts  desired  are  not  to  be  found  in  printed  form  and 
must  be  obtained  by  personal  interviews  and  correspondence. 
Unless  courses  of  study  perform  this  task  for  the  teachers  it  is  likely 
to  remain  undone,  for  teachers  generally  have  neither  the  time, 
the  ability,  nor  the  inclination  to  do  it. 

Even  when  all  the  information  needed  is  found  in  the  text-book, 
the  latter  cannot  be  followed  page  by  page.  The  author  of  a  text- 
book very  often  is  interested  chiefly  in  the  systematic  development 
of  the  subject  under  consideration  and  arranges  his  facts  accord- 
ingly, while  the  solution  of  a  problem  is  very  likely  to  require  data 
from  the  various  parts  of  the  subject.  Often  as  in  geography  and 
history,  the  appendix  supplies  some  of  the  most  essential  facts. 
Here  again  the  course  of  study  may  be  of  real  service  to  the  teacher 
by  at  least  stating  the  references  to  facts  necessary  for  the  given 
problem.  Children's  experiences  should  be  utilized  to  as  great 
extent  as  possible  in  the  solution  of  problems.  As  far  as  these 
experiences  are  indicated  by  the  course  of  study  at  least,  makers  of 
the  latter  should  have  a  better  knowledge  of  them  than  the  class 
teacher  whose  perspective  is  very  often  limited  to  the  work  of  one 
grade.  The  curriculum  should  therefore  indicate  in  connection 
with  each  problem  just  what  old  experiences  are  available  for  its 
solution. 


78  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

To  be  of  real  service  to  the  teacher  in  directing  the  pupil's  search 
for  facts  relevant  to  the  solution  of  problems  courses  of  study  should 
indicate  fully  the  facts  most  available  for  that  purpose,  whether  such 
facts  are  already  known  to  the  children,  or  are  to  be  found  in  text- 
books or  reference  books,  or  are  to  be  obtained  from  other  sources. 

Form  in  which  Relevant  Facts  Should  Appear  in  the  Course 
of  Study 

Several  plans  are  feasible:  (i)  The  facts  may  be  actually  stated 
in  considerable  detail,  as  is  now  the  custom  in  some  systems  when 
the  newer  branches  are  under  consideration,  or  when  the  newer 
topics  of  old  branches  are  outlined.27  In  some  cases,  for  example 
in  home  geography  and  local  history,  where  printed  matter  is  not 
available,  it  would  probably  be  the  most  economical  procedure  for 
the  curriculum  to  state  in  some  detail  the  facts  to  be  used  by  the 
teacher  in  connection  with  each  problem.  It  will  probably  prove 
more  practicable,  however,  in  many  cases  merely  to  state  the 
references  to  the  proper  sources,  as  this  will  materially  reduce  the 
bulk  of  the  curriculum.  In  the  latter  case,  provision  should  be 
made  by  the  school  authorities  to  have  these  reference  books  avail- 
able to  the  teachers. 

Such  Facts  Must  be  Suited  to  Capacities  of  Children 

Whatever  facts  are  provided  by  the  curriculum  should  be  suited 
to  the  capacities  of  the  children  for  whom  they  are  intended.  As 
has  been  previously  suggested,  old  experiences  should  be  utilized 
whenever  possible.  Organization  of  knowledge  can  result  only  to 
the  extent  to  which  previous  experience  is  applied;  specific  in- 
stances frequently  are  of  value  in  the  development  of  generaliza- 
tions, while  the  concepts  already  established  acquire  wider  meaning 
through  application  —  through  the  association  of  other  specific 
instances  with  the  concept.  Objective  and  graphic  illustrations 
should  be  indicated  whenever  necessary  to  supply  sufficiently  con- 
crete data;  excursions  and  experiments  should  be  planned  for  the 
same  reason. 

27  Thus  System  VII  devotes  eight  and  one- half  pages  to  the  syllabus  in  Language 
and  Grammar  for  the  elementary  school  but  gives  over  fifty  to  eighth  grade  cook- 
ery. System  X  allows  about  three  pages  to  the  physiology  of  the  bones  and  muscles, 
organs  of  excretion,  organs  of  feeling  and  willing,  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics, 
contagious  diseases,  and  what  to  do  in  emergencies,  but  devotes  about  ten  pages 
to  questions  of  hygiene. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  79 

Facts  Must  be  Supplied  in  Sufficient  Number 

Not  only  should  courses  of  study  indicate  the  facts  to  be  used  in 
solving  problems  of  the  right  sort  and  make  sure  of  their  suita- 
bility to  the  children,  but  they  must  also  supply  such  facts  in  suf- 
ficient number  to  enable  children  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion  which, 
because  of  the  number  and  quality  of  facts  adduced  in  its  support, 
seems  thoroughly  sound.  Thus  the  comprehensiveness  of  the 
problem  must  be  carefully  evaluated.  It  must  be  asked,  "What 
aspects  has  this  problem  which  should  be  discussed  in  order  to 
arrive  at  a  sound  conclusion?  "  Likewise,  "What  aspects  can  chil- 
dren comprehend?"  Again  the  importance  of  the  problem  from 
society's  point  of  view  must  be  taken  into  consideration  and  data 
massed  in  order  to  make  the  conclusion  as  striking  as  possible. 
Finally,  the  attitude  of  the  children  themselves  toward  a  certain 
problem  and  its  suggested  conclusion  should  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration. Truths  from  history  displeasing  because  of  sectional  bias; 
truths  taught  in  literature  objected  to  on  narrowly  sectarian  grounds 
or  other  prejudice,  must  be  based  upon  such  a  wealth  of  facts  that 
the  conclusion  will  seem  inevitable. 

Conclusions  Should  be  Stated 

Courses  of  study  should  further  indicate  the  relationships  which 
will  be  the  outcome  of  intelligent  problem  solution.  As  has  been 
shown  in  the  previous  chapter,  problems  are  introduced  for  the 
sake  of  inducing  thinking  upon  certain  materials  in  order  that 
effective  organization  of  experiences,  or  facts,  may  result.  The 
conclusion  in  each  case  should  exhibit  in  as  clear  a  form  as  possible 
the  relations  developed.  Depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  prob- 
lem it  will  at  times  be  stated  in  the  form  of  a  summary;  again,  it 
will  be  stated  in  a  single  sentence  expressing  a  causal  connection, 
a  definition,  or  other  generalizations.  In  this  manner  teachers 
will  be  made  more  conscious  of  the  outcome  of  their  teaching;  they 
will  be  informed  as  to  just  what  particular  relation  is  to  be  estab- 
lished, what  concept  developed.  As  a  result  the  conclusion  is  the 
more  likely  to  be  stressed  in  their  teaching  and  so  rendered  available 
in  the  further  thinking  of  the  pupils. 

To  What  Extent  Do  Courses  of  Study  Meet  These  Standards? 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  judge  courses  of  study  in  general 
by  the  standards  here  set  forth.  In  most  cases,  as  has  been  previ- 


8o  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

ously  stated,  no  problems  are  given  and  consequently  standards 
for  judging  the  relevancy  of  facts  are  lacking.  For  the  same  reason 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  facts  are  supplied  in  sufficient 
number;  neither  could  conclusions  be  indicated  where  none  are 
expected.  In  one  instance,  however,28  both  the  problem  and  facts 
are  given.  The  data  supplied  are  indicated  by  topic  only,  which 
may  be  sufficient  for  the  teaching  force  of  this  system;  in  school 
systems  in  general  more  detailed  statements  or  references  should 
be  resorted  to.  Some  of  the  data  supplied,  however,  have  no 
direct  relation  to  the  problem;  these  are  added  to  the  outline  after 
the  conclusion  has  been  stated  with  the  preceding  facts  as  a  basis. 
It  would  have  been  better  if  these  facts  could  have  been  introduced 
in  connection  with  a  new  problem.  "Why  the  Dutch  excel  in  the 
making  of  butter  and  cheese";  "Why  the  Dutch  manufacture  such 
large  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese,  having  such  a  limited  area 
for  pasture,"  etc.,  are  problems  which  could  have  been  used  for 
the  purpose  of  introducing  such  topics  as  kind,  number,  care  of 
cattle;  methods  of  feeding  and  utilizing  lands  for  this  purpose; 
quality  of  butter  and  cheese  manufactured;  desirability  of  the 
product  at  home  and  abroad;  markets,  both  home  and  foreign, 
to  which  products  are  shipped;  transportation  routes  making  ship- 
ments easy  and  rapid. 

4.  How  Courses  of  Study  Should  Arrange  Instruction  Materials 

With  the  suggestion  of  appropriate  problems  and  the  data  neces- 
sary for  their  solution,  curricula  have  performed  two  tasks  of  im- 
portance for  the  organization  of  the  pupil's  knowledge.  A  third 
task  remains.  It  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  facts  plays  a  most  important  part  in  securing  clearness, 
perspective,  and  force,  in  fact,  that  the  arrangement  of  appropriate 
data  is  what  gives  them  meaning  in  any  given  instance.  What  can 
curricula  contribute  to  aid  the  teacher  in  presenting  the  facts  chosen 
in  an  order  conducive  to  the  ends  desired?  Here  it  would  seem  that 
curricula  might  offer  an  arrangement  of  the  materials  of  instruc- 
tion corresponding  to  the  thought  movement  during  the  lesson,  in 
so  far  as  that  is  possible.  It  is  not  claimed  here  that  such  an  ar- 
rangement can  be  made  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pupils  in  full; 
a  final  adjustment  of  this  kind  must  always  be  made  by  the  teacher 
in  the  presence  of  the  class.  Much  can  be  done,  however,  to  make 
this  final  adjustment  by  the  teacher  as  simple  and  efficient  as 
28  Netherlands,  System  12,  cited  pp.  60-61. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  81 

possible.  It  would  seem  to  be  wholly  practicable  for  the  curriculum 
to  arrange  the  materials  bearing  upon  a  single  problem  in  the  fol- 
lowing sequence: 

1.  Those  experiences  might  be  indicated  which  will  be  essential 

to  suggest  the  problem ; 

2.  The  problem  might  then  be  indicated; 

3.  The  several  sub-divisions,  or  sub-problems  might  then  follow; 

4.  In  connection  with  each  sub-problem  there  might  appear  the 

facts  or  materials  necessary  to  its  solution; 

5.  The  conclusion  to  be  derived  should  be  stated,  together  with 

the  facts  upon  which  it  is  based  in  clear  and  concise  form, 
so  as  to  exhibit  the  relations  to  be  developed  in  as  forceful 
a  manner  as  possible. 

Extent  to  which  Courses  of  Study  Arrange  the  Materials  of  Instruc- 
tion in  Accordance  with  the  Order  Here  Suggested. 

In  general,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  illustrations  cited  on  pages 
3-11,  no  attempt  at  arranging  materials  with  due  consideration 
of  the  needs  of  the  teacher  in  mind  has  been  made.  As  previously 
pointed  out,  problems  which  would  control  such  an  arrangement 
are  generally  lacking;  this  does  away  with  the  necessity  for  stating 
the  experiences  which  are  to  furnish  the  setting  for  the  problems. 
Sub-problems  are  likewise  ignored  and  no  arrangement  of  materials 
with  reference  to  problems  or  sub-problems  could  therefore  be 
attempted.  Conclusions  are  generally  lacking.  In  the  illustration 
from  System  XII,  however,  we  find  essentially  the  arrangement 
here  suggested.  There  is  first  the  material  which  is  to  furnish  the 
setting  for  the  problem  followed  by  the  statement  of  the  problem. 
Sub-problems  are  lacking  and  therefore  the  arrangement  of  ma- 
terials with  reference  to  them.  The  conclusion  is  stated  after  the 
data  necessary  for  its  derivation  have  been  given.  The  introduction, 
after  the  statement  of  the  conclusion,  of  facts  not  related  to  the 
problem  has  been  previously  criticized. 

The  Relation  of  such  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials  in  the  Course 
of  Study  to  Organization  of  Facts  by  Pupils. 

It  is  quite  generally  recognized  that  the  best  courses  of  study  are 
those  which  indicate  not  only  the  aims  to  be  reached  and  the 
materials  to  be  used  in  the  realization  of  such  aims,  but  which, 
in  addition,  point  out  the  methods  by  means  of  which  this  may  be 


82  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

accomplished.  In  this  manner  many  helpful  suggestions  are  brought 
to  the  attention  of  teachers.  The  popularity  of  such  courses  of 
study  is  fully  attested  to  by  the  eagerness  with  which  they  are 
used  for  reference  by  teachers  outside  of  the  system  for  which  they 
were  contsructed.  Thus  certain  courses  of  study  have  an  almost 
national  influence  and  are  quite  as  freely  consulted  by  teachers 
without  the  system  as  by  those  within.  Suggestions  on  method 
are  welcomed  by  teachers  generally. 

Now,  as  was  shown  above,  the  organization  of  facts  by  the  pupil 
is  one  of  the  most  important  ends  to  be  attained  by  the  teacher; 
it  is  also  one  of  the  most  difficult.  Here  then  the  teacher  stands 
in  need  of  help  which  the  course  of  study  must  render.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  course  of  study  must  be  organized  upon  the 
basis  suggested,  must  include  a  list  of  vital  problems,  of  settings 
for  these  problems,  of  materials  to  be  used  in  their  solution,  of  con- 
clusions to  be  drawn.  Even  if  the  teacher  occasionally  is  able  to 
think  of  more  suitable  problems  than  those  suggested  by  the 
course  of  study,  such  assistance  will  not  be  rendered  unnecessary. 
Two  results  of  great  importance  should  be  brought  about  in  this 
manner.  In  the  first  place  teachers  will  be  given  most  valuable 
aid  in  their  attempt  to  organize  instruction  materials  upon  a  psy- 
chological basis  in  specific  units  of  instruction.  Much  of  the  most 
difficult  work  of  planning  lessons  with  a  view  of  leading  to  organiza- 
tion of  knowledge  by  the  pupils  has  therefore  been  done  for  them. 
In  the  second  place  teachers  will  acquire  a  method  of  dealing  with 
instruction  materials  in  general;  they  will  come  to  know  much 
more  fully  than  otherwise  would  be  possible  what  it  really  means 
to  organize  materials  with  a  view  of  making  them  meaningful. 
The  latter  result  will  be  quite  as  important  as  the  immediate  service 
rendered.  There  is  therefore  a  very  close  relation  between  the 
organization  of  courses  of  study  in  accordance  with  the  standards 
suggested  and  the  organization  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  resulting 
from  the  mastery  of  the  course. 

5.  The  Use  of  Present  Courses  of  Study  in  the  Process  of  Rebuilding. 
Other  Suggestions. 

In  the  making  of  courses  of  study  in  accordance  with  the  plan 
here  suggested,  present  courses  may  in  some  cases  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. Some  courses  already  provide  scattering  problems  in 
some  of  the  branches  of  study,  and  these  may  then  be  used  as 
above  suggested.  Systems  VIII,  IX,  and  XII  are  cases  in  point. 


Present  Practice  in  Curriculum-Making  83 

Thus  System  VIII  suggests  problems  in  physiology  and  geography; 
System  IX  in  physiology;'  and  System  XII  in  nature  study  and 
geography.  In  many  courses  the  topics  to  be  taught  are  here  sug- 
gested in  some  detail  and  therefore  afford  some  guidance  as  to  the 
materials  to  be  presented  to  the  pupils.  The  courses  of  Systems  I, 
VIII,  X,  and  XII  could  be  used  in  this  manner.  Again  present 
courses  in  some  instances  offer  suggestions  as  to  the  final  organiza- 
tion of  materials  to  be  aimed  at.  System  I  is  an  illustration  of  this 
point.  Many  courses  offer  no  aid  whatever  in  this  respect. 

The  task  of  making  a  course  of  study  upon  the  basis  here  sug- 
gested is  one  of  considerable  magnitude  and,  as  has  been  previously 
suggested,  will  require  the  cooperation  of  teachers  and  supervising 
officials.  In  fact,  in  some  communities  at  least,  intelligent  laymen 
might  be  consulted  as  well  and  valuable  suggestions  obtained  in 
this  manner.  The  latter  would  very  often  be  able  to  suggest  prob- 
lems of  vital  importance  as  well  as  data  of  a  certain  kind  not  easily 
obtainable  by  supervisors  and  teachers.  To  the  task  of  making 
the  curriculum  afresh  must  be  added  that  of  keeping  it  up  to  date. 
Frequent  revisions  will  be  necessary  for  this  purpose.  In  many 
instances  what  makes  a  problem  vital  is  the  fact  that  it  relates  to 
some  current  event;  in  such  a  case  another  problem  will  have  to 
be  substituted  within  a  comparatively  short  time.  The  revision 
of  some  part  of  the  curriculum  would  probably  very  frequently 
become  the  order  of  the  day  at  teachers'  meetings.  This  will  make 
it  possible  for  supervisors  to  motivate  teachers'  meetings  far  beyond 
present  possibilities,  for  it  will  then  become  necessary  to  discuss 
the  really  live  issues  of  teaching  and  thus  make  possible  that  in- 
telligent cooperation  between  teachers  and  supervisors  so  essential 
to  best  results. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

THE   APPLICATION   OF   THE   PRINCIPLES   STATED   TO 
CURRICULUM-MAKING  —  TYPE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

IN  the  present  chapter  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  illustrate 
the  principles  stated  in  the  preceding  chapters.  The  problems 
selected  for  the  purpose  represent  industrial  work,  nature  study, 
sanitation,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  history.  They  differ  in 
comprehensiveness,  the  first  being  the  least  comprehensive.  They 
differ  also  in  remoteness  from  the  immediate,  practical  needs  of  the 
individual.  The  first,  "  How  can  I  make  a  rug  for  my  doll  house  "  — 
representing  industrial  work — is  one  relating  to  the  child's  present, 
"practical"  affairs,  his  life  of  action,  and  is  an  illustration  of  the 
type  of  problem  called  above,  the  "problem  of  action."  The 
second  problem,  "How  shall  we  protect  our  porches  from  the  hot 
summer  sun,  making  them  as  cool  and  attractive  as  possible?" 
is  an  illustration  of  the  class  called  above,  the  problem  of  "the  con- 
crete whole."  Most  of  the  other  problems  are  of  the  third  type 
aiming  at  the  development  of  a  concept  or  the  application  of  con- 
cepts in  the  explanation  of  a  difficulty  stated  in  the  problem.  The 
problem, "  Why  do  Americans  like  to  travel  in  the  United  Kingdom?" 
has  for  its  purpose  fixing  certain  facts  previously  used  in  connec- 
tion with  other  problems  and  certain  others  having  a  conventional 
value. 

PROBLEM    I 

How  shall  we  make  a  rttgfor  our  doll  house? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Rouillion,  "  Economics  of  Manual  Training." 

2.  Wheeler,  "How  To  Make  Rugs." 

The  house  has  been  built;  paper  has  been  hung.  Furnishing 
the  house  is  the  next  step.  The  first  problem  that  arises  is  "What 
shall  be  done  with  the  floors?"  The  assumption  is  that  children 
will  decide  to  cover  some,  of  the  floors  with  rugs.  Consequently 
the  problem: 

84 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum- Making      85 

How  shall  we  make  a  rug  for  our  parlor? 

1.   What  kind  of  material  shall  we  select  for  the  rug? 
We  might  use 
Rags  —  A  rug  of  this  kind  would  be  quite  durable,  and  the  material  can 

easily  be  gotten.    2 :22 
Cotton-roving  —  A  finer  material  than  rags  and  easily  worked  into  rug. 

More  pleasing  colors  —  Cheap. 

Coarse  yarn  —  Germantown.    Makes  a  fine  rug.    Pattern  rug  could  be 
made  from  this  material.    A  finer  material  than  cotton-roving  and 
better  suited  to  the  small  rooms  of  a  doll  house. 
Jute  —  Inexpensive;  easily  worked  (harsh  rug). 
Raffia —  Also  inexpensive;  easily  woven.    Softer  than  jute. 
2.  How  to  weave  the  rug? 
Reference— 1:29.    2:28-42. 
Children  make  the  rug. 
Which  rug  is  best  suited  for  the  parlor? 
Consider  material,  workmanship,  appearance,  suitability  for  purpose. 

NOTE.  The  statement  of  a  conclusion  would  be  impossible  here  because  the 
workmanship  of  the  pupils  will  play  a  very  important  part  in  the  appearance  of 
the  rugs  made. 

PROBLEM  II 

How  shall  we  protect  our  porches  from  the  hot  summer  sun,  making  them  as  cool  and 
attractive  as  possible? 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Meier,  "School  and  Home  Gardens." 

2.  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  "Agriculture  for  Beginners." 

3.  Bailey,  "  Garden-Making,"  pp.  291-302. 

4.  Spring  Hill  Nurseries  catalog. 

5.  "Helps  to  a  Beautiful  Home,"  Peter's  Nursery  Co.,  pp.  18-20. 

6.  Catalog,  Bobbink  &  Atkin's  Nursery,  Rutherford,  N.  J.,  pp.  69-73. 

7.  Catalog,  Storrs  &  Harrison,  Painesville,  O. 

Have  the  children  recall  some  houses  which  make  ideal  summer  homes.  Why 
do  they?  Usually  such  houses  are  surrounded  by  spacious  lawns  planted  with 
shade  trees,  flowers  and  shrubbery.  Often  the  houses  are  covered  with  vines  giving 
them  an  attractive  and  cool  appearance.  Such  homes  are  ideal  in  summer  for 
both  play  and  rest.  v 

Why  do  not  people  in  general  provide  cool  and  attractive  summer  homes?  Many 
houses  are  not  so  situated  as  to  have  shade  sufficient  for  the  comfort  of  the  occu- 
pants. Shade  trees  are  lacking.  In  many  cases  it  would  require  a  considerable 
number  of  years  before  trees  planted  at  the  present  time  would  afford  much  shade. 
Shading  the  house  by  means  of  trees  is  therefore  impossible  in  many  cases;  what 
could  be  done  under  these  circumstances  to  make  at  least  the  porches  as  cool  as 
possible?  (Porches  might  be  shaded  in  some  manner.) 

1.  What  are  the  several  means  which  we  might  use  for  the  purpose? 

(a)  Shades;  cloth,  bamboo,  wood. 

(b)  Vines  of  various  sorts.    4:37;  5:18. 


86  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

2.  Why  would  vines  be  preferable  to  shades? 

(a)  They  are  more  attractive.    See  illustrations  2:268-269;  7:128-129; 

4:37. 

(b)  They  are  cooler.     See  2:268,  for  illustration. 

3.  What  kind  of  vine  shall  we  select  for  our  purpose? 

(a)  It  must  afford  an  abundance  of  shade. 
•(&)  It  should  grow  rapidly  so  as  to  give  us  shade  early  in  the  summer. 

(c)  For  purposes  of  ornamentation  it  would  be  well  to  have  a  flowering 

vine. 

(d)  It  should  be  rather  inexpensive. 

4.  What  vines  would  meet  these  conditions? 

(a)  Of  those  which  the  children  know.    Have  children  recall  or  observe 

vines  of  the  community  with  the  preceding  points  in  mind.    Morn- 
ing glory,  wild  cucumber,  clematis,  etc.,  may  be  mentioned. 

(b]  Some  which  the  children  may  not  know:  Virginia  creeper;  wistarias; 

Japanese  honeysuckle;   etc.    Study  these  vines  first  hand  to  de- 
termine which  would  be  most  satisfactory  for  our  purpose.    (Resi- 
dences where  these  vines  may  be  seen  might  be  indicated  here.) 
See  also  photographic  illustrations:  7:129. 
For  descriptions  see  1:164^167. 

PARTIAL  SUMMARY:  "The  Virginia  creeper  has  beautiful,  five-pointed  leaves 
that  turn  to  rich  crimson  in  autumn.  ...  It  is  a  quickgrowing  vine,  and  there 
is  nothing  superior  as  a  shade  plant  for  arbors  and  verandas."  While  it  will  do 
best  in  a  rich  loam  it  will  grow  in  any  kind  of  soil.  It  requires  no  protection  in 
winter.  This  plant  will  therefore  be  our  choice. 

5.  Where  may  it  be  secured? 

Storrs  &  Harrison,  Painesville,  O.,  at  20?f  each  or  10  for  $1.50. 
Spring  Hill  Nursery,  Tippecanoe  City,  O.,  at  20£  each  or  6  for  $1.00. 

6.  How  shall  it  be  planted? 

No  special  preparation  of  ground  is  needed,  although,to  secure  best  results, 
a  trench  may  be  dug  and  filled  with  rich  loam  and  leaf  mold.    1 :164. 

7.  What  support  and  care  does  it  require?     1:164. 

FINAL  SUMMARY:  The  most  satisfactory  vine  for  covering  a  porch  is  the  Vir- 
ginia creeper.  It  is  quick-growing,  affords  excellent  shade,  grows  in  any  kind  of 
soil  and  requires  little  care.  It  may  be  secured  from  Storrs  &  Harrison,  Paines- 
ville, O.,  at  20ff  each  or  10  for  $1.50,  or  from  Spring  Hill  Nursery,  Tippecanoe  City, 
O.,  at  20f£  each  or  6  for  $1.00.  To  do  its  best  it  should  be  planted  in  trenches  about 
one  foot  or  more  deep  filled  with  loam.  Wires  may  be  strung  for  its  support. 

PROBLEM  III 

Tuberculosis 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Ritchie,  "Primer  of  Sanitation,"  chapters  XIII  and  XIV. 

2.  Ritchie,  "  Human  Physiology,"  chapter  XXVI. 

3.  Willis,  "Essentials  of  Health,"  chapter  XXXIX. 

Note  the  prevalence  of  the  disease.  Its  various  forms.  Some  forms  are  common 
in  children.  Most  people  tuberculous.  (1:61)  Cost  of  the  disease.  Number  of 
deaths  per  year.  Danger  to  all  of  us. "  (1 :53-55)  (2 :340) 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making     87 

What  can  we  do  to  help  in  the  fight  against  tuberculosis? 

1.  To  know  how  to  fight  it  successfully 

(a)  We  must  know  how  the  disease  is  caused. 

The  germ  of  tuberculosis:    its  nature;    where  found;    conditions 
under  which  it  thrives.     (1:54)     (2:340-341) 

(b)  We  must  know  further  how  the  disease  is  communicated. 
How  the  germs  are  taken  into  the  body. 

By  inhaling  them.     (2:342;  1:55) 

By  taking  them  in  with  our  food.     (2:341;  1:55) 
Sources  with  which  people  are  likely  to  come  in  contact. 

The  rooms  of  consumptives,  dishes,  clothing,  sputum  deposited 
in  public  buildings  and  conveyances,  etc. 

Milk  and  meats. 
References.     (1:55-56;  59-60;  2:341-343) 

Tuberculosis  is  not  inherited.     (1:67-68) 

(c)  We  must  know  further  what  people  are  most  likely  to  contract  the 
the  disease. 

Those  whose  systems  are  weakened  from  over-work,  lack  of  good 

food,  lack  of  fresh  air,  and  from  other  diseases. 
Those  whose  systems  are  weakened  by  alcohol.     (1:58-59) 

(d)  We  must  also  know  what  are  effective  methods  of  treating  those 

who  suffer  from  the  disease. 

Importance  of    rest,  nutritious  food,  fresh  air,  warm  and   dry 

clothing,  cheerfulness,  and  a  good  physician.     (1 :65-66) 
Why  patients  should  be  treated  near  or  at  home  rather  than  in 

distant  states. 
Why  state  sanatoria  are  valuable  factors  in  the  treatment  of 

tuberculosis.     (1:66-67) 
Why  the  disease  should  be  treated  in  the  early  stages.     (1-61-62) 

REFERENCES.     1:61-70;  2:343-346;  3:272-275. 

2.  What  can  we  do  to  fight  the  disease? 

(a)  We  should  make  an  effort  to  keep  ourselves  free  from  it. 
How  this  can  be  done. 

(1)  We  must  keep  our  bodies  strong  to  resist  the  disease,  breath- 

ing an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  taking  plenty  of  exercise, 
eating  nutritious  foods,  abstaining  from  alcoholic  liquors. 

(2)  We  must  be  on  our  guard  against  infected  sources,  infected 

houses,  public  buildings,  drinking  cups,  etc.  and  careless 
consumptives. 

(3)  We  must  be  on  our  guard  against  infected  foods,  especially 

milk. 

(6)  We  may  make  an  effort  to  keep  the  disease  from  spreading  by 
making  our  homes  and  public  places  as  sanitary  as  possible.   Thus, 

(1)  we  may  insist  upon  thorough  ventilation. 

(2)  we  may  insist  that  people  do  not  expectorate  in  public  build- 

ings and  conveyances.    There  are  laws  to  this  effect  and 
we  should  aid  in  their  enforcement. 


88  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

(3)  Houses  known  to  have  been  inhabited  by  consumptives  should 

be  thoroughly  disinfected  before  others  live  in  them. 

(4)  Public  halls  and  conveyances  should  be  disinfected  at  regular 

intervals, 
(c)   We  may  aid  those  who  suffer  from  the  disease  to  get  well. 

(1)  We  may  advise  them  against  the  use  of  patent  remedies  and 

.  quack  physicians. 

(2)  We  may  suggest  consultation  with  a  specialist. 

(3)  We  may  in  some  cases  advise  upon  the  essentials  of  good 

treatment  and  aid  in  its  enforcement. 

(4)  We  may  give  financial  aid  for  the  establishment  or  mainten- 

ance of  sanatoria,  or  for  the  support  of  individual  patients. 

CONCLUSION:  Tuberculosis  is  a  germ  disease  transmitted  usually  by  inhaling 
the  germ  or  taking  it  into  the  body  with  unsanitary  foods.  People  whose  systems 
are  weakened  in  any  way  are  especially  subject  to  the  disease.  The  principal 
factors  in  its  treatment  are  abundance  of  fresh  air,  rest,  nutritious  food,  and  a 
good  physician.  We  may  fight  it  (a)  by  keeping  our  bodies  strong  to  resist  the 
germ;  (b)  by  making  our  homes  and  public  places  sanitary;  (c)  by  aiding  those 
who  suffer  from  it  with  advice  and  money  to  get  well. 

PROBLEM  IV 

Why  does  Great  Britain  buy  wheat,  meat,  other  foodstu/s,  and  cotton  of  America, 
and  why  does  she  pay  for  them  in  manufactured  goods? 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Tarr  &  McMurry's  New  Geography —  Second  Book. 

2 .  Dodge  —  Advanced. 

3.  Dryer,  High  School  Geography. 

4.  Statesman's  Yearbook,  1913. 

5.  Brigham's  Commercial  Geography. 

6.  Allen's  "  Industrial  Studies"  —  Europe. 

Recall  the  exports  of  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain.  (What  products  does 
America  sell  to  Great  Britain?)  United  States:  Cotton,  breadstuff s,  meat  and 
dairy  products,  mineral  oil.  Canada:  Meat,  hides,  cheese,  wheat  and  timber. 
See  Tarr  &  McMurry,  New  Geographies,  Second  Book,  p.  411;  also  Dodge's 
Advanced  Geography,  p.  186.  Note  the  nature  of  these  exports. 
1.  Why  does  Great  Britain  buy  foodstuffs  of  America? 

Why  does  she  not  produce  them  at  home  in  sufficient  quantities  for  her 
people? 
(a)  Are  conditions  in  Great  Britain  favorable  for  agriculture? 

(1)  Surface.  Much  of  it  is  rocky  and  mountainous,  unfit  for  farm- 
ing. Locate  highlands  of  Scotland  (Grampians),  Northern 
England  (Cheviot  Hills  and  Pennine  Range),  and  Wales 
(Cambrian  Mountains).  Locate  the  lowlands  of  Scot- 
land and  England. 

Find  approximately  the  amount  of  land  suited  for  agriculture. 
Locate  the  highlands  and  lowlands  of  Ireland.    About  how 
much  of  the  surface  seems  suited  for  agriculture? 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      89 

(2)  Climate.  Oceanic;  in  spite  of  high  latitude  not  very  cold  at 
any  time  during  the  year.  Abundant  rainfall  everywhere; 
more  of  the  western  than  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  country. 
See  map  of  rainfall,  Tarr  &  McMurry,  p.  264. 

*  (3)  Soil.    Very  fertile  generally  on  lowlands,  but  rather  sterile  in 

eastern  and  England. 

REFERENCES.    Tarr  &  McMurry's  New  Geography,  Second  Book,  p.  264; 

Dodge,  Advanced  Geography,  pp.  226-227. 

Conditions  for  agriculture  are  quite  favorable  for,  while  highlands  occupy 
nearly  all  of  Scotland  and  considerable  parts  of  England  and  Wales,  the  soil  of  the 
lowlands  is  fertile  and  the  climate  is  humid  and  mild. 

(&)  To  what  extent  do  the  British  make  use  of  their  opportunities  for 
agriculture? 

(1)  Proportion  of  land  tilled:  32  %  in  England  and  Wales.  (3 :437) 

Manner  of  tilling  land.    Yield  per  acre.     (5:306;  4:60-61) 

(2)  Principal  crops  raised:  oats,  barley,  wheat;  turnips,  potatoes, 

beans,  peas;  flax  and  hops.     (1:265;  2:227) 

(3)  How  these  crops  are  distributed.    Why?     (2 :227) 

(4)  Proportion  of  land  in  pasture.     About  two-thirds  of  area. 

(2:227)     Why?     (1:265) 

(5)  Products  of  the  pasture  lands.     What  are  they?     Cattle, 

giving  meat,  butter,  milk,  cheese,  and  hides;    sheep,  fur- 
nishing meat,  wool,  hides.    (1:265;  2:227) 
The  value  of  these  products.     (4:61) 

CONCLUSION:  The  lowlands  and  plains  of  Great  Britain  are  tilled  carefully, 
wheat,  oats  and  barley  being  raised  with  a  higher  average  yield  per  acre  than  in 
other  countries.  Turnips,  potatoes,  beans  and  peas  are  also  raised  in  large  amounts. 
Parts  of  the  country  too  rough  and  rocky  for  farming,  or  having  too  sterile  a  soil 
are  largely  used  for  pasture  lands,  about  two-thirds  of  the  country  being  used  in 
this  way.  Cattle  giving  meat,  butter,  milk,  cheese,  and  hides;  sheep,  furnishing 
mutton,  wool,  and  hides  are  produced  in  these  lands.  These  products  are  of  con- 
siderable value.  It  would  seem  therefore  that  the  British  make  good  use  of  their 
agricultural  resources.  If  more  grain  and  root  crops  were  produced  this  would 
probably  be  done  at  the  risk  of  reducing  the  meat  supply. 

(c)  How  do  England's  fisheries  aid  her  in  solving  her  food  problem? 

(1)  Where  do  the  English  fish?     (1:266) 

(2)  The  kinds  of  fish  caught.    Sole,  cod,  haddock,  herring. 

Oyster  fisheries  along  south  coast.     Salmon  in  rivers  of 
northern  Great  Britain.     (1 :266) 

(3)  The  importance  of  the  industry:  number  of  men  and  vessels 

employed.     (1 :266) 

(4)  Principal  fishing  centers:  London,  Hull,  Grimsby,  Aberdeen, 

Great  Yarmouth,  Harwich. 

(5)  Value  of  the  product.     Second  only  to  the  United  States. 

(2:229) 

Supply  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand.    Worth  $50,000,000 
in  1908.     (5:310)     (4:65) 


go  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

CONCLUSION:  Because  of  the  nearness  of  excellent  fishing  grounds  in  the  North 
Sea  and  in  the  ocean  north  and  west  of  the  islands  the  British  are  enabled  to  secure 
fish  to  the  value  of  about  $50,000,000  per  year.  Sole,  cod,  haddock,  herring  are 
caught  in  the  ocean,  oysters  along  the  south  coast  of  England,  and  salmon  in  the 
rivers  of  Northern  Great  Britain.  The  quantity  of  fish  caught  is  sufficient  to  meet 
the  demand. 

(d)  Even  with  the  aid  of  the  fisheries,  however,  Great  Britain  does  not 
succeed  in  supplying  sufficient  foodstuffs  for  her  people,  for  her 
population  is  about  45,000,000  with  a  density  of  634  per  square 
mile  in  England  and  Wales.    (3:437;   5:305-306;  2:226;  4:79) 
How  does  Great  Britain  secure  the  necessary  additional  supplies? 

(1)  From  where  do  they  come? 

From  the  United  States;    wheat,  meat,  lard,  butter,  cheese. 
From  her  colonies; 

Canada:  Grain,  beef,  dairy  products.     (2:186) 

Ceylon:  Rice,  tea,  cocoa.     (2:307-308) 

Egypt:  Cereals.     (2:282) 

India:  Rice,  tea,  wheat,  oil  seeds.     (2:306) 
The  United  Kingdom  depends  upon  her  colonies  largely  for 

foodstuffs. 

(2)  Why  do  the  English  colonies  send  their  surplus  foodstuffs  to 

Great  Britain  rather  than  to  other  countries? 
Great  Britain  offers  more  favorable  conditions  to  importers 

of  foodstuffs  than  those  countries  in  which  foodstuffs  abound. 
Thus  in  Great  Britain  foodstuffs  are  admitted  free  of  duty 

while  in  many  countries  they  are  subjected  to  a  high  tariff. 

(5:318;  268) 
Colonies  need  those  things  which  the  mother  country  can 

supply. 
Colonies  use  the  same  language  as  the  mother  country.  (1 :275) 

(3)  How  these  foodstuffs  are  brought  to  Great  Britain. 

Note  the  ports  in  colonies  and  foreign  countries  from  which 

foodstuffs  are  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
New  York,  Montreal,  Colombo,  Alexandria,  Bombay,  Cal- 
cutta, Madras. 
Note  the  sea  routes  by  which  they  are  brought  to  Great 

Britain. 

Locate  the  chief  ports  of  entry  and  observe  the  importance 

of  each:  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow.     (1:272-274;  2:231) 

Note  the  means  of  distribution:  railroads  and  canals.    (5:312- 

314;  315-316) 

CONCLUSION:  Since  Great  Britain  is  unable  to  provide  sufficient  foodstuffs  for 
her  people  through  agriculture  and  fisheries  she  is  compelled  to  import  some  from 
the  United  States,  Canada,  Egypt,  India,  Ceylon,  etc.  All  of  these  imports  must 
be  brought  across  the  seas,  some  coming  through  the  Suez  Canal,  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  while  others  are  brought  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  chief  ports  of  entry  are  London,  Liverpool,  and  Glasgow.  From 
these  ports  they  are  distributed  to  the  various  manufacturing  centers  over  a  sys- 
tems of  canals  and  railways. 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      91 

CONCLUSION  to  (1).  Conditions  on  the  whole  are  favorable  in  the  United  King- 
dom and  the  people  raise  about  as  much  of  agricultural  produce  as  possible.  They 
supplement  agricultural  products  with  fish  but  do  not  succeed  in  meeting  the  needs 
of  the  country  for  foodstuffs.  Much  must  be  imported  from  the  United  States 
and  the  British  colonies. 

2.  Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  pay  for  the  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials 

she  buys  from  the  United  States,  other  foreign  countries,  and  her  col- 
onies with  manufactured  goods? 
What  she  gives  in  return  for  imports  of  foodstuffs  will  be  indicated  by  her 

exports  to  the  United  States,  her  colonies,  etc. 
What  are  our  principal  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom?    Cotton  goods, 

woolen  goods,  tin,  manufactured  fibres,  pottery.     (1:411) 
What  does  Great  Britain  export  to  Canada?     Steel  manufactures  and 

woolens. 

What  are  the  United  Kingdom's  exports  to  Egypt,  India,  Ceylon? 
Woolen  goods,  cotton  goods,  and  steel  manufactures  seem  to  be  produced 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  used  in  payment  of  the  imports  of  foodstuffs. 
(1:410-411;  2  :xi-Appendix) 

How  can  the  United  Kingdom  manufacture  woolen  goods  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  export  them? 
(a)  Where  is  the  raw  wool  obtained? 

Is  there  an  abundance  of  raw  wool  produced  in  the  country? 
Recall  what  has  been  said  on  this  point.     (1:265) 
Not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  exports  of  woolens? 
From  what  other  sources  is  the  deficiency  made  up?     (6:84) 
(&)  Where  the  raw  wool  is  manufactured  into  cloth  and  yarns. 

(Bradford  and  Leeds  with  surrounding  towns  constitute  the  chief 
wool-manufacturing  district.     (1:268) 

(c)  What  conditions  favor  the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods  in  this  region? 

Historic  causes.     (5:308-309) 

Presence  of  some  of  the  raw  material  because  of  nearness  to  sheep- 
growing  region..       (1:268) 
Nearness  to  coalfields. 

(d)  The  value  of  the  product;  importance  of  the  industry.     (4:70) 

(e)  Why  the  product  is  so  desirable.     (Fine  quality.) 

CONCLUSION:  The  United  Kingdom  is  able  to  export  woolens  in  large  quantities 
because 

(a)  raw  wool  is  produced  in  great  quantities  in  Scotland  and  England; 

(b)  additional  wool  for  manufacturing  purposes  is  easily  imported  from 

the  colonies  and  from  foreign  countries; 

(c)  coal  and  water  power  are  readily  available  for  running  the  mills; 

(d)  The  product  is  in  great  demand  because  of  its  superior  quality  and 

therefore  its  manufacture  is  profitable;    it  is  manufactured  in 
much  larger  quantities  than  needed  for  home  consumption. 

REFERENCES.     1:267-268;  2:30;  5:308-309;  6:83-87. 

3.  Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  engage  so  extensively  in  the  manufacture 

of  cotton  goods? 

(a)  Importance  of  the  cotton  industry. 


92  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

The  cities  engaged  in  its  manufacture.     Manchester  and  others  in 

that  region.     (5:309;     5:306-7) 
The  number  of  men  employed.     (6:80) 
The  amount  of  raw  cotton  used.     (1 :268) 
Value  of  product.     (4:70) 
(6)  Why  cotton  goods  are  successfully  manufactured  in  the  United 

Kingdom. 

Skilled  labor  in  abundance. 
Climatic  conditions  are  favorable. 
Coal  for  power  is  easily  obtainable. 

Raw  cotton  is  easily  imported  from  United  States  and  Egypt. 
(c)  Product  is  valuable  because  of  the  constantly  increasing  demand 
for  it.     (5:38-39) 

CONCLUSION:    The  English  people  engage  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  because: 

(a)  the  product  is  valuable;  the  demand  for  it  almost  universal; 
(&)  conditions  for  the  successful  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  are  most 
excellent,  England  having  skilled  labor  in  abundance; 

(c)  favorable  climatic  conditions; 

(d)  coal  within  easy  reach; 

(e)  raw  cotton  brought  by  boat  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  manufac- 

turing district. 
REFERENCES.     L;  268-269;  2:229-230;  6:80-83;  5:306-307. 

4.  Why  the  iron  and  steel  industry  has  become  so  prominent  in  the  United 

Kingdom. 

(a)  The  demand  for  various  kinds  of  iron  and  steel  goods  excellent, 

especially  in  the  colonies  of  the  country. 

(6)  This  demand  the  British  try  to  meet  as  may  be  seen  from  the  va- 
riety of  articles  produced  in  the  various  centers: 
.    Birmingham:    Railroad  irons,  steam  engines,  bicycles,  firearms, 

watches,  jewelry. 

Sheffield:  Armor  plate,  steel  rails,  cutlery. 
Glasgow:  Locomotives,  machinery,  ships. 

(c)  The  conditions  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods  are  very 
excellent  in  the  various  centers  for  iron  ore,  coal,  and  limestone 
are  found  in  close  proximity  to  each  and  in  great  abundance. 
(1:267-269;  2:229-230;  6:87-91) 

CONCLUSION:  The  iron  and  steel  industry  has  developed  so  greatly  because  of 
the  demand  for  this  class  of  goods.  The  United  Kingdom  finds  an  excellent  market 
for  its  product  in  its  colonies.  Conditions  for  the  manufacture  of  this  class  of  goods 
are  excellent. 

REFERENCES.    See  (c)  above. 

5.  It  will  be  noted  that  both  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials  used  for  manu- 

facturing, on  the  one  hand,  and  the  manufactured  goods  on  the  other, 
have  to  be  carried  for  thousands  of  miles  in  some  cases  before  they  reach 
their  destination.  Here  note  again  the  sources  of  foodstuffs  and  of  raw 
materials  as  well  as  the  markets  for  the  manufactured  goods.  How  can 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      93 

the  United  Kingdom  ship  her  raw  materials  and  her  manufactured  goods 

so  great  a  distance  profitably? 

(a)  The  goods  are  carried  by  steamships,  in  some  cases  almost  directly 

to  the  manufacturing  cities,  or  from  these  cities  to  the  markets. 
Note  the  proximity  of  the  manufacturing  centers  to  the  seaports. 
(6)  Some  of  the  inland  centers  are  connected  with  the  ports  by  means 

of  canals  of  which  the  United  Kingdom  has  about  4000  miles. 

(5:313) 

(c)  Steamship  routes  (note  the  principal  ones)  are  owned  by  the  British 

thus  keeping  the  money  paid  out  for  freight  in  the  country. 
(1:275;  410) 

(d)  Steamers  carrying  manufactured  goods  out  return  laden  with  food- 

stuffs and  raw  materials  thus  reducing  the  cost  of  freight. 

CONCLUSION:  The  United  Kingdom,  although  thousands  of  miles  away  from 
the  source  of  some  of  its  raw  materials  and  its  markets,  is  enabled  to  carry  on  a 
successful  commerce  with  her  distant  colonies  and  foreign  nations  because  of  her 
excellent  shipping  facilities,  for  the  carrying  is  done  in  steamships  owned  by  the 
British;  steamers  carrying  the  manufactured  goods  out  to  the  colonies  return 
laden  with  raw  materials  or  foodstuffs. 

REFERENCES:  1:275-276;  2:230;  5:311-314;  6:76-80. 

FINAL  CONCLUSION:  Great  Britain  is  compelled  to  buy  foodstuffs  and  raw  ma- 
terials of  the  United  States  and  her  own  colonies  because  she  does  not  produce 
sufficient  foodstuffs  at  home  and  is  unable  to  supply  the  raw  materials  which  she 
needs  for  some  of  her  manufactures.  She  pays  for  them  with  manufactured  goods 
—  woolens,  cottons,  and  steel  —  because  the  conditions  necessary  for  producing 
them  cheaply  are  very  favorable  and  the  cost  of  transportation  of  both  raw  ma- 
terials and  the  manufactured  articles  is  low. 


PROBLEM  V 

Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  maintain  so  large  a  navy? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  The  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1913. 

2.  Dodge,  Advanced  Geography. 

3.  Tarr  &  McMurry,  New  Geographies;  Second  Book. 

Recall  recent  newspaper  accounts  of  the  comparative  size  of  the  navies  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  France,  Germany,  United  States.  See  also  1 :54-60;  797-800; 
872-875;  396-398.  Note  the  cost  of  a  "dreadnaught"  and  "super-dreadnaught" 
($8,000,000).  Call  attention  to  the  objection  of  some  of  the  American  people  to 
the  expenditure  of  money  for  warships. 

Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  maintain  so  large  a  navy? 

1.  What  is  the  use  of  a  navy? 

Protection  hi  tune  of  war;  offence;  defence. 

2.  Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  need  a  navy  for  this  purpose  more  than 

other  countries? 

(a)  To  protect  the  importation  of  foodstuffs.    How  could  an  enemy  of 
the  United  Kingdom  cut  off  her  food  supply? 


94  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

Many  countries  raise  most  of  their  foodstuffs  at  home;   the  United 

Kingdom,  however,  must  import  a  considerable  portion  of  them. 

Recall  where   they  come  from.     (2:186;    307-308;    282;    306; 

3:411;  1:79) 
The  superior  enemy  of  the  country  could  capture  any  ships  bearing 

foodstuffs  to  Great  Britain. 

(b)  To  protect  the  importation  of  raw  materials  for  manufacturing. 
Why  could  an  enemy's  fleet  threaten  her  in  this  respect? 

While  the  United  States  produces  much  of  the  raw  materials  for  her 
manufactures  the  United  Kingdom  must  import  them  in  large 
quantities  for  her  colonies  and  from  the  United  States.  (1:78) 
See  also  3:74,  410-411.  Recall  the  various  imports  of  raw  ma- 
terials. An  enemy's  fleet  superior  to  Great  Britain's  could  com- 
pletely cut  her  off  from  these  important  imports,  depriving  her 
people  of  their  means  of  making  a  living. 

(c)  To  protect  the  United  Kingdom's  commerce. 

How  could  a  hostile  fleet  damage  the  country's  commerce? 

Because  of  her  extensive  manufacturing  the  United  Kingdom  pro- 
duces immense  quantities  of  manufactured  goods  which  must  be 
exported  to  foreign  countries  and  to  her  colonies.  (1 :73-79) 

An  immense  merchant  marine  is  engaged  in  carrying  the  imports 
and  exports  of  the  country.  (1:80;  3:410)  A  hostile  fleet  could 
drive  this  commerce  from  the  seas  and  so  not  only  deprive  the 
British  people  of  their  food  supplies  and  raw  materials  but  also 
deprive  thousands  of  British  sailors  of  their  employment. 

(d)  To  protect  her  colonies. 

How  could  a  hostile  fleet  interfere  with  the  xUnited  Kingdom's 

colonies? 

It  could  isolate  the  colonies  like  the  mother  country  and  even 
appropriate  them,  since  the  colonies  look  for  their  defence  very 
largely  to  the  mother  country. 
CONCLUSION:  The  United  Kingdom  must  maintain  a  large  navy, 

(a)  to  protect  its  importation  of  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials; 
(6)  to  protect  its  commerce; 
(c)  to  protect  its  colonies. 

PROBLEM  VI 

Why  do  Americans  like  to  travel  in  England? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Coe,  "Modern  Europe";  pp.  18-91. 

2.  Stoddard's  Lectures,  Vol.  IX. 

3.  Knox,  "  Boy  Travellers,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland." 

4.  Allen,  "Industrial  Studies:  Europe." 

Recall  the  fact  that  many  thousands  of  Americans  annually  cross  the  Atlantic 
for  the  purpose  of  travelling  in  Great  Britain.  Call  attention  to  any  local  people 
known  to  the  pupils  who  may  have  gone  there  for  that  purpose  recently.  Why 
do  they  go?  What  places  of  interest  would  they  find? 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      95 

1.   They  might  visit  places  famous  for  their  scenery. 

Southern  England.     Its  beautiful  landscapes.     (1:21-22;    2:169-197  for 

rural  views) 
The  Lake  Country;   the  region  made  famous  by  Coleridge,  Southey,  and 

Wordsworth.     Factors  in  its  beauty:    Climate,  ruggedness  of  region, 

the  lakes,  the  vegetation.     (1:47^18;  3:252-268) 
The  Loch  Katrine  region  in  Scotland,  made  famous  by  Scott. 
The  region  is  noted  for  beautiful  lakes  and  high  mountains. 
"The  lakes  are  studded  with  small  islands."    (1 :69-70;  Lady  of  the  Lake) 
Hebrides  Islands.    lona  and  Staffa.    Fingals  Cave  the  point  of  interest  on 

the  latter;  and  Ancient  Chapel  on  the  former.    (1:76-78;  2:101-111) 
Lakes  of  Killarney.     Famous  for  their  beauty.     (1 :85-86) 
Giant's  Causeway.     ( 1 :90-9 1 ;  3 :80-88) 

CONCLUSION:  Americans  visit  the  United  Kingdom  for  various  reasons.  The 
country  affords  much  beautiful  scenery,  for  Southern  England  has  many  beauti- 
ful landscapes;  the  Lake  Country,  made  famous  by  Coleridge,  Southey  and  Words- 
worth is  attractive  to  tourists  because  its  peculiar  climate;  the  ruggedness  of  the 
region,  the  lakes,  and  the  vegetation  combine  to  make  this  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful places  in  England;  the  Loch  Katrine  region  in  Scotland  is  visited  by  many 
because  its  numerous  lakes  with  their  many  small  islands  and  its  high  mountains 
makes  the  scenery  the  most  noteworthy  in  Scotland.  lona  and  Staffa,  two  of  the 
Hebrides  Islands,  are  visited  by  some  travelers,  the  former  because  of  an  ancient 
chapel  and  the  latter  because  of  a  splendid  cave  washed  out  by  the  sea.  The  Lakes 
of  Killarney,  the  most  beautiful  and  famous  lakes  in  Ireland  and  the  Giant's 
Causeway,  a  large  number  of  rock  pillars  extending  out  of  the  water,  are  places  of 
scenic  beauty  in  Ireland  frequently  visited  by  tourists. 

2.   Many  of  the  authors  whose  books  are  read  in  American  schools  and  homes 

lived  and  wrote  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  made  some  places  famous 

through  their  writings. 

Stratford-on-Avon,  the  early  home  of  Shakespeare.    (1:50-53;  2:165-177) 
Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.     (1 :66-67 ;  2 :59  ff) 
Ayrshire,  the  home  of  Robert  Burns.     (1:73-75;  2:20-37) 
Dublin,  the  birthplace  of  Moore.     (1:88;  3:52) 
Gad's  Hill,  Rochester,  home  of  Dickens,  and  some  of   the  places  made 

famous  by  Dickens.     (2:207-224) 
Stoke  Pogis  and  its  churchyard  made  famous  through  Gray's  Elegy. 

(2:149-151) 

CONCLUSION:  The  United  Kingdom  is  visited  by  many  Americans  who  are 
interested  in  the  places  made  famous  by  its  literary  men.  Stratford-on-Avon, 
the  home  of  Shakespeare,  Abbotsford,  the  residence  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Ayrshire, 
made  famous  because  of  Robert  Burns,  Dublin,  the  birthplace  of  Tom  Moore, 
Gad's  Hill,  Rochester,  and  other  places  made  famous  by  Charles  Dickens,  Stoke 
Pogis  and  its  churchyard  remembered  through  Gray's  Elegy. 

3.   Some  cities  prove  attractive  to  tourists. 

Liverpool  with  its  very  large  harbor  and  extensive  shipping.     (1:19-20; 

4:76-78;  3:286-289;  300) 
Manchester,    the   great   cotton   manufacturing   city   of    England.     Ship 


96  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

canal,  docks,  cotton  mills,  cotton  exchange,  technical  schools,  university. 

(4:78-83) 
Birmingham,  noted  for  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  lenses,  stained  glass, 

etc.     (4:88-91) 
London,  the  largest  city  of  the  world. 

London  Tower.     (2 :267-271 ;  4:95-96) 

London  Bridge.     (2:23-24;  97-98) 
Dick  en's   House,   Devonshire  Terrace   and   others.      (2:292-295;    some 

houses  made  famous  by  him:  2:297  ff.) 
Houses  of  Parliament.     (2:329-336;  4:96-97) 
Glasgow,  the  great  shipbuilding  center,  where  the  large  ocean  steamers  are 

built.     (1:72-73;  4:27-29) 

Edinburgh,  the  beautiful  capital  of  Scotland.     (1 :62-66;  2:47  ff.) 
Dublin,  the  Irish  capital.     (1 :87-89;  4:50-51) 

CONCLUSION:  Again  some  Americans  are  interested  in  manufacturing  and  other 
phases  of  city  life.  These  find  Liverpool  interesting  for  its  very  large  harbor  and 
its  extensive  shipping;  Manchester  for  its  ship  canal,  docks,  cotton  mills,  cotton 
exchange,  its  technical  school  and  university;  Birmingham  for  its  extensive  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel  goods,  lenses,  stained  glass,  etc.;  London  for  its  size,  its 
Tower,  London  Bridge,  Westminster  Abbey,  the  Houses  of  Parliament;  Glasgow 
for  its  extensive  shipbuilding;  Edinburgh  for  its  beauty,  and  Dublin,  the  capital 
of  Ireland. 

FINAL  CONCLUSION:  Americans  visit  the  United  Kingdom  because  of  its  places 
of  scenic  interest  such  as  the  Lake  Country,  the  Loch  Katrine  region  in  Scotland, 
lona  and  Staffa  of  the  Hebrides  Islands,  the  Lakes  of  Killarney  and  the  Giant's 
Causeway  in  Ireland.  They  also  find  it  interesting  to  visit  the  places  made  famous 
by  its  literary  men;  such  places  as  Stratford-on-Avon,  the  home  of  Shakespeare, 
Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Scott,  Ayrshire,  the  home  of  Burns,  Dublin,  the  birth- 
place of  Tom  Moore  and  others,  Gad's  Hill,  Rochester,  one  of  the  homes  of  Dickens, 
etc.  Again  some  of  the  cities  present  interesting  sights  to  tourists  because  of  their 
factories,  transportation  facilities,  etc.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Liverpool 
with  its  large  harbor  and  docks,  Manchester,  the  great  cotton  manufacturing  center 
of  the  country,  Birmingham,  the  center  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
goods,  London,  the  capital  of  the  country,  Glasgow,  for  its  shipbuilding,  Edin- 
burgh, the  beautiful  capital  of  Scotland,  and  Dublin,  the  capital  of  Ireland. 

PROBLEM  VII 

How  does  the  British  Government  encourage  manufacturing  and  commerce? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Tarr  and  McMurry,  New  Geographies,  Book  Two. 

2.  Dodge,  Advanced  Geography. 

3.  Allen,  "Industrial  Studies,"  Europe. 

4.  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1913. 

5.  Mace,  "  School  History  of  the  United  States." 

Recall  how  the  United  States  protects  its  industries  by  means  of  the  protective 
tariff.  Importers  of  foreign  merchandise  must  pay  "duty"  on  it  before  it  is  ad- 
mitted to  this  country.  Enumerate  some  of  the  articles  and  produce  on  which 


Application  of  the  Principles  Staled  to  Curriculum-Making      97 

such  duty  must  be  paid.  How  does  a  high  tariff  "protect"  the  country?  (It 
raises  the  price  of  the  imported  article  so  that  the  manufacturer  in  this  country 
can  charge  a  higher  price  for  his  product.)  The  tariff  is  often  considered  in  our 
country  as  a  means  for  developing  manufacturing.  The  United  Kingdom  has  no 
tariff  on  raw  materials,  yet  manufacturing  is  very  extensive. 

How  does  the  British  government  encourage  manufacturing  and  commerce? 
(a)  By  admitting  raw  materials  free  of  duty. 

Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  admit  raw  materials  free  of  duty? 

Recall  the  fact  that  there  are  not  sufficient  raw  materials  in  the  country; 
that  all  of  the  cotton,  much  wool,  lumber,  oil  seeds,  hides,  etc.,  must 
be  imported  from  the  colonies  and  foreign  countries.  (1:410-411; 
3:81;  4:77) 

To  make  the  raw  materials  more  expensive  would  increase  the  price 
of  the  manufactured  article;  this  increased  cost  would  have  to  be 
paid  either  by  the  home  population  in  case  of  home  consumption 
or  by  foreign  nations  in  case  exported.  In  case  the  article  is  to  be 
shipped  to  countries  having  a  tariff  the  several  tariffs  levied  upon  it 
(that  imposed  upon  the  raw  material  and  that  upon  the  manufac- 
tured article  at  point  of  entry  in  foreign  country)  would  make  the 
cost  of  it  so  high  that  it  probably  could  not  compete  at  all  with  the 
similar  product  at  home. 

CONCLUSION:  By  admitting  raw  materials  free  of  duty  the  United  Kingdom 
decreases  the  cost  of  the  finished  product  and  so  enables  her  factories 
to  compete  with  those  of  foreign  countries. 

(6)  By  training  her  workmen  more  thoroughly  than  formerly.  Recall  the 
fact  that  in  many  of  her  factories  skilled  workmen  are  needed,  in 
fact  that  the  success  of  many  establishments  depends  upon  the 
skilled  workmen.  What  does  the  United  Kingdom  do  to  train  its 
workmen?  (4:30) 
(c)  By  providing  markets  for  manufactured  goods. 

What  does  the  government  do  to  provide  markets  for  the  surplus  product 
of  her  people's  manufactures? 

Recall  the  fact  that  the  United  States  was  once  a  colony  of  the  United 
Kingdom;  that  even  at  that  time  the  mother  country  did  not  like 
to  have  her  colonies  manufacture  articles  but  wished  to  supply  them 
from  her  own  factories.  (5:137) 

Note  again  the  chief  colonies  of  the  United  Kingdom:  Canada,  Egypt, 
East  India,  the  South  African  Union,  British  East  Africa,  Australia. 

Note  the  importance  of  these  colonies  to  the  mother  country  when 
judged  by  the  quantity  of  imports  from  the  mother  country.  (4 :75-76) 

CONCLUSION:  The  English  policy  of  colonizing  territory  in  different  parts  of  the 
world  has  proved  of  great  importance  to  her  manufacturers  by  providing  them  with 
advantageous  markets. 

(J)  By  subsidizing  ships  for  commerce. 

How  the  United  Kingdom  encourages  her  merchant  marine. 
Certain  steamship  companies  are  paid  considerable  sums  of  money  for 
the  maintenance  of  ships  of  a  certain  tonnage  and  speed.     Such 


98  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

ships  are  used  by  the  companies,  but  may  be  called  for  by  the  govern- 
ment in  time  of  war  to  be  used  for  war  purposes. 

CONCLUSION:  By  subsidizing  the  merchant  marine  the  United  Kingdom  en- 
courages the  carrying  trade  of  the  country,  making  the  merchant  marine  of  that 
country  by  far  the  greatest  of  all  countries,  and  making  it  possible  in  this  way 
that  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  country  is  carried  in  British  bottoms. 

FINAL  CONCLUSION:  The  British  government  encourages  manufacturing  and 
commerce  in  several  ways: 

1.  By  admitting  raw  materials  free  of  duty  it  enables  the  British  manufacturer 

to  compete  with  foreign  rivals  successfully. 

2.  By  training  her  workmen  in  recent  years  she  is  attempting  to  meet  the 

demand  for  skilled  labor  in  her  factories. 

3.  By  colonizing  territories  in  different  parts  of  the  world  she  has  established 

markets  for  the  surplus  manufactures  of  her  people. 

4.  By  subsidizing  the  merchant  marine  she  makes  it  possible  that  most  of 

the  British  commerce  is  being  carried  in  British  bottoms,  thus  keeping 
the  money  paid  out  for  this  purpose  in  her  possession. 

PROBLEM  VIII 

What  are  the  conditions  essential  to  the  development  of  a  manufacturing  center? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Tarr  &  McMurry,  New  Geographies,  Book  Two. 

2.  Dodge's  Advanced  Geography. 

3.  Keller  and  Bishop,  Commerical  and  Industrial  Geography. 

4.  Brigham,  Commercial  Geography. 

Review  the  essential  factors  in  the  development  of  Minneapolis  — •  as  a  milling 
center.  Nearness  to  the  wheat  fields  of  the  Northwest;  location  on  the  direct  route 
to  the  markets  of  the  East  and  of  Europe;  water  power.  Recall  that  Chicago  must 
ship  in  its  raw  materials,  in  some  instances  a  long  distance;  that  this  city  must 
use  steam  instead  of  water  power;  that  the  New  England  cities  must  import  their 
cotton  and  the  coal  used  in  running  the  mills;  that  much  of  their  product  must 
be  shipped  to  distant  localities.  Neither  water  power  nor  proximity  to  raw  ma- 
terials, markets,  or  coal  mines  seems  to  be  an  essential  factor  in  making  cities 
important  manufacturing  centers. 

What  are  essential  factors  which  make  cities  important  manufacturing  centers? 
1.  Is  nearness  to  raw  materials  one  factor?  Apparently  so  in  case  of  Minne- 
apolis, Birmingham,  Alabama,  Atlanta,  etc.  (1:113,  79,  82).  This  is 
not  the  case,  however,  with  cotton  manufacture  in  the  New  England 
cities,  Fall  River,  Lowell,  Manchester,  etc.,  nor  with  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  goods  in  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  etc.  In  each  case  the 
raw  materials  have  to  be  shipped  long  distances  before  they  reach  the 
factories. 

It  is  evident  therefore  that  nearness  to  raw  materials  is  not  one  of  the 
conditions  of  a  successful  manufacturing  center;  good  transportation 
facilities  will  make  it  possible  for  cities  to  have  the  necessary  raw 
materials  shipped  in.  (4:205) 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      99 

PARTIAL  SUMMARY:  While  nearness  to  raw  materials  is  not  an  essential  factor 
in  the  development  of  manufacturing  centers,  accessibility  of  raw  materials  is; 
when  therefore  a  city  is  located  some  distance  from  the  source  of  raw  materials, 
good  shipping  facilities  are  an  important  factor. 

2.  Is  water  an  essential  factor?    It  would  seem  so  from  the  study  of  Minne- 

apolis where  it  plays  an  important  role;  but  many  important  manu- 
facturing cities  do  not  have  water  power.  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cincin- 
nati, New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  etc.  use  steam  instead  of  water 
power,  while  others  still  use  electric  power.  (1 :65) 

PARTIAL  SUMMARY:  While  water  power  is  not  an  essential  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  manufacturing  city  some  form  of  power  must  be  available.  This  may 
be  either  steam  or  electric  power  in  the  absence  of  water  power. 

3.  Is  nearness  to  markets  an  essential  factor?    It  would  seem  so,  for  many 

large  manufacturing  centers  are  favorably  located  in  this  respect.  Thus 
farm  machinery  is  manufactured  very  largely  in  the  North  Central 
States,  and  here  principally  in  Illinois,  the  state  nearest  the  principal 
farming  region  of  the  country.  (4:214)  The  cotton  mills  of  both  New 
England  and  Great  Britain  also  illustrate  this  point.  Many  manufac- 
turing centers  are  not  located  near  the  markets.  Thus  Omaha  and 
Kansas  City  packing  meat,  Minneapolis  producing  flour  are  not  located 
near  the  principal  markets,  but  they  are  located  on  the  way  between 
the  source  of  the  raw  materials  and  the  ultimate  markets.  Even  this 
is  not  necessary,  however,  for  much  of  the  cotton  cloth  manufactured 
in  the  New  England  cities  must  be  shipped  out  of  that  section  to  the 
western  states.  This  is  rendered  possible  because  the  freight  on  the 
light  goods  is  comparatively  small. 

PARTIAL  SUMMARY:  While  nearness  to  markets  is  not  an  essential  factor  it  is 
a  very  important  one  in  the  development  of  a  manufacturing  center.  Unless  freight 
rates  are  low  on  the  articles  manufactured  in  cities  remote  from  markets,  such  cities 
would  find  it  difficult  to  compete  with  those  more  favorably  situated.  Accessi- 
bility to  markets  is  an  essential  factor  in  the  development  of  manufacturing  centers. 

4.  What  part  does  labor  play  in  the  development  of  manufacturing  centers? 

Cities  like  Brockton,  Mass.,  Gloversville,  N.Y.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  require 
skilled  workmen.  Cotton  manufacturing  had  a  very  late  start  in  the 
South  because  of  the  lack  of  skilled  labor.  Collars  and  cuffs  are  manu- 
factured very  largely  in  Troy  and  Glens  Falls  because  of  the  skilled 
labor  available  for  the  purpose  there  and  lacking  elsewhere.  (4:208, 
209-210,  213) 

PARTIAL  SUMMARY:  Skilled  labor  is  an  essential  factor  in  the  development  of  a 
manufacturing  center;  without  it  manufacturing  becomes  impossible.  The 
importance  of  some  manufacturing  centers  like  Gloversville,  e.g.,  depends  almost 
wholly  upon  skilled  labor. 

5.  A  locality  having  power  in  some  form,  intelligent  labor,  and  a  favorable 

situation  with  reference  to  raw  materials  and  markets  has  most  of  the 
essential  elements  of  a  good  manufacturing  city.  However,  it  was 
observed  in  the  study  of  Minneapolis  that  large  mills  had  been  erected  for 


ioo  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

grinding  the  wheat,  that  wheat  had  to  be  bought  and  ground  and  then 
shipped  thousands  of  miles  in  some  cases  to  reach  the  markets.  It 
would  seem  therefore  that  money  with  which  to  run  manufacturing 
establishments  is  an  essential  factor  in  the  success  of  manufacturing 
centers.  Is  this  assumption  correct?  Note  the  extensive  establishments 
of  the  meat-packing  industry  in  Chicago,  the  iron  works  in  Pittsburg, 
the  large  cotton  mills  in  the  New  England  cities  and  consider  how  im- 
possible it  would  be  to  manufacture  any  of  these  and  other  classes  of 
goods  without  capital.  Capital  is  undoubtedly  an  essential  factor  for 
extensive  manufacturing;  it  seeks  for  investment  those  places  where 
the  four  other  factors  are  most  favorable.  (4:206,  208) 

PARTIAL  SUMMARY:  Capital  for  financing  manufacturing  establishment  is 
another  essential  factor  in  the  development  of  manufacturing  centers. 

FINAL  SUMMARY:  The  following  factors  seem  to  be  essential  in  the  development 
of  manufacturing  centers: 

1.  Raw  materials  must  be  available  either  because  of  nearness  to  the  source 

of  supply  or  because  of  cheap  shipping  rates. 

2.  Power  in  some  form  must  be  obtainable.    The  cheapest  power  is  water 

power;  most  of  the  manufacturing  establishments,  however,  must 
resort  to  the  use  of  steam  and  some  to  electricity.  In  the  second  case 
cheap  coal  rates,  or  nearness  to  the  coal  mines  are  important. 

3.  •  Accessibility  to  markets  is  an  indispensable  condition. 

4.  Skilled  labor  must  be  available. 

5.  There  must  be  capital  to  finance  manufacturing  enterprises. 

PROBLEM  IX 

How  will  the  Federalists  succeed  in  establishing  the  credit  of  the  new  government 
at  home  and  abroad? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Hart,  "  Formation  of  the  Union,"  p.  155  ff. 

2.  Walker,  "  Making  of  the  Nation,"  p.  78  ff. 

3.  McMaster,  "History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,"  Vol.  II, 

28-55. 

4.  Hart,  "  Source  Reader  No.  Ill,"  45-96. 

5.  Mace,  "  School  History  of  the  United  States,"  223-226. 

6.  Doub,  "History  of  the  United  States,"  332-337. 

7.  Woodburn  and  Moran,  "Elementary  American  History  and  Govern- 

ment," pp.  204-207. 

8.  Fiske,  "The  Critical  Period  in  American  History." 

9.  Schouler,"  History  of  the  United  States,"  Vol.  I,  pp.  144-156;  173-177. 

10.  Guitteau,  "  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States." 

11.  Bassett,  "A  Short  History  of  the  United  States." 

The  financial  situation  of  the  country  when  the  Federalists  came  into  power. 

States  are  deeply  in  debt  in  many  cases.  The  country  owes  large  sums  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  Consequences:  The  country's  credit  is  gone;  no  more  money 
can  be  borrowed.  Interest  on  debt  cannot  be  paid;  soldiers  must  go  without  pay 
due  them.  There  is  no  money  to  meet  the  current  expenses  of  the  government. 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to 

People  distrust  the  government  and  hoard  their  money  so  as  not  to  lose  it.  Busi- 
ness is  at  a  standstiU.  (6:279-281;  8:134-186) 

How  will  the  Federalists  succeed  in  establishing  the  credit  of  the  New  Govern- 
ment at  home  and  abroad? 

How  does  the  federal  government  raise  money  for  its  maintenance  today? 
(10:346-355) 

(a)  By  tariff. 

(b)  By  income  tax. 

(c)  By  tax  on  tobacco,  spirits,  Excise. 

(d)  By  issuing  bonds  at  times  (when  large  sums  are  needed  at  once). 

How  does  a  state  raise  money?     (10:190-204) 

By  direct  taxation  usually.    Different  taxes  included  here:  Property;   inheri- 
tance; income. 

By  issuing  bonds  at  times. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  several  methods. 

The  tariff  is  easily  administered:   Very  little  machinery  is  required  for  the 
purpose.    People  pay  it  without  being  aware  of  paying  a  tax. 

It  falls  unevenly  upon  different  sections  of  the  country,  or  different  classes  in 
same  section. 

Direct  taxes  make  necessary  rather  complicated  machinery  of  administration. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  actual  amount  of  property  owned  by  the  people 
taxed. 

It  becomes  objectionable  because  of  the  obtrusiveness  of  the  machinery  for 
administration.    People  know  they  are  being  taxed. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  tariff  holds  good  of  other  indirect  taxes,  of  course. 
Which  of  these  methods  of  raising  money  would  probably  be  suited  to  the 
needs  of  the  federal  government  in  the  time  of  Washington's  administration? 

Tariff  —  because  easily  collected  and  without  its  being  apparent  to  people. 

Issuing  of  bonds  —  to  meet  large  and  unusual  payments. 

1.  How  congress  attempts  to  provide  money  for  the  immediate  needs  of  the 
government,  the  running  expenses  and  the  interest  on  the  public  debt. 
(a)  Madison  suggests  a  tariff  on  imports  which  Congress  finally  adopts. 
(11:257) 

(6)  What  articles  were  suggested  for  tariff.    (3:580  ff.;  9:87  ff.) 

(c)  On  what  basis  the  selection  was  made. 

(1)  Luxuries  should  be  taxed:  wines,  spirits,  tea,  coffee,  molasses, 

sugar. 

(2)  Products  manufactured  at  home  should  be  taxed:   iron  and 

steel  goods,  paper,  leather  goods,  woolen  and  cotton  goods, 
coal. 

(3)  Local  influences  enter  in  determining  the  products  needing 

protection. 

(d)  How  the  tariff  was  to  be  collected. 
Coast  is  divided  into  collection  districts. 
Ports  of  entry  and  export  are  established. 
The  appointment  of  collectors  is  provided  for. 

(e)  Result  of  the  tariff  act.     (Income  of  $200,000  per  month) 


102  '  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

CONCLUSION:  To  provide  money  for  the  current  expenses  of  the  government 
Congress  enacts  a  tariff  law  taxing  luxuries  and  articles  manufactured  at  home. 
For  the  efficient  administration  of  the  tariff  law  collection  districts,  ports  of  entry 
and  export,  and  collectorships  are  established.  The  income  derived  from  the 
tariff  is  $200,000  per  month  which  is  ample  for  the  purpose. 

REFERENCES:  6:332-333. 

2.  While  the  income  derived  from  the  tariff  would  meet  the  necessary  cur- 
rent expenses  of  the  government  and  probably  the  interest  on  the  public 
debt  carried  by  foreign  nations,  Congress  was  in  ignorance  of  the  extent 
of  the  country's  indebtedness  at  home  and  therefore  requested  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  to  make  a  report  upon  the  actual  status  of  the 
country's  financial  affairs.     This  report  showed 
a  foreign  debt  aggregating  $12,000,000; 
a  domestic  federal  debt  of  $42,000,000; 

state  debts  incurred  in  war  and  still  unpaid  of  $2 1 ,000,000.     (11 :259) 
How  the  Federalists  took  care  of  these  debts. 

(a)  What  Hamilton  suggested  concerning  the  manner  in  which  these 

debts  should  be  paid  and  the  reasons  he  gave  for  his  plan. 

(1)  The  nation  should  assume  the  state  debts. 

(2)  The  entire  debt  should  be  funded.     (6:335) 

(3)  His  reasons  for  this  course: 

Public  credit  depends  upon  good  faith  of  the  government 

toward  its  creditors. 
The  measures  suggested  will  establish  public  confidence  by 

assuring  payment  of  debts  at  face  value. 
(9:132;  6:332-335) 

(b)  Why  some  of  Hamilton's  recommendations  were  opposed  by  some 

people. 

(1)  Why  people  objected  to  paying  the  domestic  debt  in  full. 

(11:259) 
Payment  of  interest  alone  would  cause   ruinous  rate  of 

taxation. 
People  accepting  the  certificates  originally  did  not  expect 

payment  in  full. 
Original  holders  of  certificates  would  not  receive  the  benefit 

of  full  reimbursement,  but  speculators  instead. 

(2)  Why  people    objected    to   the  assumption  of    state  debts. 

(11:259-260) 
They  held  that 

It  was  unfair  to  the  states  who  had  nearly  paid  their  debts; 
This  additional  burden  would  necessitate  additional  taxa- 
tion and  so  encroach  upon  the  rights  of  the  states  in  this 
respect. 

(c)  How  the  Federalists  bargained  for  assumption.     (11 :260) 

They  promised  the  South  the  location  of  the  capital  on  the  Potomac 
if  the  assumption  bill  should  become  a  law.  Two  Virginians  were 
to  vote  for  assumption  while  certain  northern  congressmen  were 
to  vote  for  location  of  capital  on  Potomac. 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      103 

(d)  How  Congress  finally  decided  the  matter. 

Both  the  bill  for  assumption  and  that  for  funding  the  debts  of 
the  country  are  passed.  $12,000,000  to  pay  the  foreign  debt 
is  to  be  borrowed  and  money  to  be  reimbursed  within  15  years. 
Loan  for  the  domestic  debt  is  authorized  providing  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  amount  should  draw  interest  at  six  per  cent  from 
January  1,  1791;  the  remaining  one- third  at  the  same  rate  from 
1800.  Arrears  of  interest  were  to  be  funded  at  full  value  and  to 
draw  interest  at  three  per  cent  from  July  1,  1791,  redeemable  at 
pleasure  of  the  government. 
REFERENCES:  2:78-80. 

CONCLUSION:  To  care  properly  for  the  debt  of  the  country,  both  the  foreign 
and  the  domestic,  the  federal  government  is  to  assume  the  payment  of  the  state 
debts  incurred  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  fund  the  entire  debt  of  the  country  at 
face  value. 

3.  The  assumption  of  the  state  debts  created  a  deficit  in  the  treasury  calling 
for  a  larger  amount  of  money  for  the  payment  of  interest.    More  money 
must  therefore  be  provided.     (11:260-261) 
How  were  additional  funds  to  be  secured? 
(a)  Why  the  tariff  could  not  be  increased  on  imported  articles.    (Would 

stop  importation  altogether.) 
(6)  What  Hamilton  proposed. 

(1)  An  excise,  duty  on  distilled  spirits. 

(2)  A  national  bank. 

(c)  What  Hamilton  expected  of  these  measures. 

(1)  Duty  on  distilled  liquors  would  increase  revenue.    Federal  ma- 

chinery for  collecting  it  would  be  light.  By  increasing  the 
tariff  on  imported  spirits  the  home  manufacturers  would 
suffer  little.  The  more  intelligent  part  of  the  community 
would  gladly  see  the  use  of  spirits  discouraged. 

(2)  Sale  of  the  stock  of  the  bank  would  render  more  money  avail- 

able for  business  and  government. 
Through  the  bank  money  could  be  borrowed,  collected  and 

paid  out. 
(d}  Why  people  objected  to  the  proposed  laws. 

(1)  Excise  law.     (3:26-28) 

The  national  government  should  not  tax  our  own  products. 
The  law  would  be  unfair  since  it  reached  only  a  part  of  the 
people. 

(2)  National  bank.     (3:29-31) 

It  would  constitute  a  dangerous  power  in  politics. 
It  would  be  unconstitutional. 
(e)  How  the  argument  of  unconstitutionally  was  answered. 

Constitution  grants  certain  "implied  powers." 

(/)  How  Washington  felt  concerning   the  opposition  arguments. 
(3:35-36) 
Calls  for  statements  from  both  Jefferson  and  Hamilton. 


104  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

(g)  How  the  measures  were  finally  disposed  of  by  Congress.    (3:32) 

Congress  passes  both  bills,  limiting  the  charter  of  the  bank  to 
twenty  years. 

CONCLUSION:  To  provide  additional  funds  for  the  government  Hamilton  pro- 
posed an  excise  bill  which  after  vigorous  opposition  was  passed  by  Congress.  He 
likewise  advocated  a  national  bank.  Through  such  an  institution  he  held  a  "much- 
needed  and  safe  currency"  would  be  provided;  "it  would  enable  the  government 
to  sell  its  bonds  quickly  at  home  and  abroad;  it  would  furnish  a  safe  and  cheap 
means  of  exchange  for  the  people";  "it  would  enable  the  government  to  transfer 
its  funds  cheaply;  and  it  would  furnish  a  safe  place  for  the  keeping  of  public 
funds." 

While  there  was  much  opposition  to  the  measure  on  the  ground  that  the  bank 
would  be  a  dangerous  power  in  politics  and  that  it  would  be  unconstitutional, 
Congress  finally  passed  the  bill. 

4.  How  did  the  financial  measures  of  Hamilton  affect  the  confidence  of  the 
people  in  the  new  government?    (5:224-225;  11:261,  267-269) 

(a)  Both  Europeans  and  Americans  had  more  confidence  in  the  new 

government  as  shown  by 

people  bringing  their  money  from  hiding; 
increased  foreign  and  domestic  commerce; 
growth  of  manufactories. 

(b)  In  the  course  of  the  debates  of  funding,  assumption,  and  the  national 

bank  clearly  defined  differences  became  apparent  with  regard  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  constitution,  one  group  favoring  strict 
Construction  while  the  other  group  loose  or  liberal  Construction. 

(c)  Some  of  the  farmers  of  Pennsylvania  opposed  the  excise  law  so 

bitterly  that  they  rebelled  against  its  enforcement  and  resorted 
to  arms. 

They  were  speedily  quieted  down  by  the  federal  government,  how- 
ever. 

CONCLUSION:  To  establish  the  credit  of  the  country  the  Federalists: 
1    levy  a  tariff  to  provide  for  current  expenses; 

2.  assume  the  debts  of  the  states  incurred  for  the  war  and  fund  the  total 

debt  of  the  country; 

3.  pass  an  excise  law  to  raise  the  money  necessary  for  the  payment  of  interest 

and  principal  of  the  state  debt  assumed; 

4.  establish  a  national  bank  to  secure  money  from  the  sale  of  stock  and 

render  it  available  for  business  and  for  the  government;  to  collect  and 
pay  moneys  through  the  bank. 

The  result  was  revival  of  business  and  of  confidence  in  the  financial  ability  of 
the  government. 

Incidentally,  through  disagreement  on  the  funding  and  assumption  bills  and 
later  on  the  bank  bill  differences  regarding  the  manner  of  interpreting  of  the  Con- 
stitution arise.  These  differences  lead  to  the  establishment  of  a  new  party. 

A  revolt  resulting  from  an  attempt  to  enforce  the  excise  law  in  Pennsylvania 
was  quickly  put  down  by  the  federal  government  and  the  respect  for  that  govern- 
ment increased. 


Application  of  the  Principles  Stated  to  Curriculum-Making      io£ 

PROBLEM  X 

What  would  be  the  most  advantageous  way  of  paying  Mils  to  business  houses  located 
at  a  distance? 
REFERENCES. 

1.  Smith,  Grammar  School  Arithmetic. 

2.  Philips  &  Anderson,  The  Silver-Burdett  Arithmetics,  Book  Two. 

The  problem  may  arise  in  some  such  a  way  as  the  following;  The  school  has 
ordered  seeds  and  bulbs  for  school  garden  and  nature  study.  The  materials  are 
to  come  from  a  distant  city.  Inquire  of  children  how  money  might  be  sent.  It 
may  be  sent  by  registered  letter,  by  money  order  (postal  or  express),  by  check  or 
by  draft.  Which  of  these  ways  would  be  the  most  advantageous  to  the  sender? 

Suppose  the  amount  to  be  sent  were  $10.00. 

1.  What  would  be  the  cost  to  send  this  amount  by  postal  money  order?    Rates 
are  as  follows: 

Amounts  up  to  $    2.50 3  cents 

"    "        5.00 5     " 

"         "    "      10.00 8     " 

"    "      20.00 10     " 

"    "      30.00 12     " 

"    "      40.00 15     " 

"    "      50.00 18     " 

"         "    "      60.00 20     " 

"   "      75.00 25     " 

"         "   "    100.00 30     " 

1:341;  2:207. 

To  send  this  amount  by  postal  money  order  would  therefore  cost  8  cents. 
As  the  rate  of  express  money  orders  is  the  same,  an  express  money  order  for 
$10.00  would  also  be  8  cents. 

2.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  sending  $10.00  by  registered  letter? 
Registration  is  10  cents.    To  send  the  amount  in  bills,  therefore,  would  cost 

10  cents,  which  would  be  2  cents  more  than  by  money  order. 

3.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  sending  this  amount  by  check  or  draft?     (1 :342) 
Business  firms  frequently  request  customers  to  add  10  cents  to  15  cents  to  amount 

of  bill  if  it  is  paid  by  check.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  banks  charge  from  10 
cents  to  15  cents  "exchange"  when  checks  are  cashed  by  the  payee.  This  would 
make  this  method  more  expensive  on  $10.00  than  a  money  order. 

To  send  $10.00  by  draft.  In  this  case  a  check  is  made  out  by  the  cashier  of  a 
bank  for  which  a  slight  charge,  usually  0.1%  is  made.  Such  a  banker's  check  is 
called  a  draft.  It  is  made  payable  to  the  person  to  whom  the  money  is  owed.  On 
$10.00  the  cost,  or  exchange,  would  be  1  cent.  Banks,  however,  charge  a  mini- 
mum amount  of  10  cents.  This  plan,  therefore,  would  be  more  expensive  than 
money  orders. 

To  send  $10.00,  therefore,  it  would  be  most  advantageous  to  use  a  postal  or 
express  money  order. 

4.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  sending  $20.00  in  the  various  ways? 
To  send  by  postal  or  express  money  order  the  cost  would  be  10  cents. 
To  send  by  registered  letter  the  cost  also  would  be  10  cents. 


io6  Organization  of  Instruction  Materials 

To  send  by  check  where  exchange  is  charged  the  cost  would  be  10  cents  at  least. 

To  send  by  draft  the  cost  would  be  10  cents. 

In  this  case  the  cost  of  sending  is  the  same  whatever  mode  is  chosen. 

5.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  sending  $30.00  in  the  several  ways? 

By  money  order 12  cents 

By  registered  letter 10  cents 

By  check 10  cents 

By  draft 10  cents 

6.  Find  cost  of  sending  $40.00,  $50.00,  $60.00. 

CONCLUSION:  For  amounts  up  to  $10.00  the  most  economical  way  of  sending 
money  is  the  money  order.  For  amounts  from  $10.00  to  $20.00  the  cost  of  sending 
is  the  same  regardless  what  plan  is  followed.  For  amounts  above  $20.00  the  regis- 
tered letter,  check,  and  draft  are  the  most  economical. 


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107 


VITA 

J.  W.  Heckert  was  born  in  Berlin,  Germany,  January  21,  1872. 
He  attended  the  elementary  schools  of  Germany  1878  to  1886; 
Pillsbury  Academy  at  intervals  from  1891  to  1896;  Hamline  Uni- 
versity 1897  to  1900;  and  Columbia  University  1904  to  1906.  He 
received  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  .Philosophy  from  Hamline  Uni- 
versity in  1900  and  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  from  Columbia 
University  in  1905.  He  has  taught  in  the  public  elementary  and 
high  schools  of  Minnesota  during  the  years  1896-97,  and  1900-1904, 
acting  also  as  superintendent  during  the  latter  period;  in  the 
Louisiana  State  Normal  School  from  1906  to  1909;  and  in  Miami 
University  since  1909. 


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J2Apr'56GB 

PR*  9 1958  Iff 


i'tc 


HJul'5/Gt 
REC'D  LD 

JUN271957 


ALTS  13 
30Jaj?52CF 


25m7,'25 


YC  03%  i 

X 


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